Abstract
In several languages, non-nominative experiencers tend to appear early on in utterances, which frequently triggers deviations from the preferred word order. These observations are based on linearization preferences, which in most cases involve gradient levels that cannot be determined precisely through singular intuitions. This article presents a crosslinguistic experimental study on languages with different word order properties (German, Greek, Hungarian, and Korean), offering precise estimates for the effects of experiencer objects on linearization. The findings reveal a strong effect of case in the sense that dative experiencers appear more frequently early in an utterance than accusative experiencers. Based on the specific properties of the investigated languages, we are revising previous hypotheses about the source of the dative/accusative asymmetry and conclude that the asymmetry relates to phrase-structural differences. Accusative experiencers are fronted more frequently than patients of canonical transitive verbs. We argue that this phenomenon relates to a preference for selecting experiencers as aboutness topics, which explains the fact that experiencer-first structures appear in syntactic constructions that may be triggered by aboutness. The results show that the experiencer-first principle interacts with properties of the syntactic structure. The differences between languages can thus be traced back to the basic properties of syntactic typology.
Abbreviations
- ACC
accusative
- ADV
adverbial
- AOR
aorist
- DAT
dative
- DECL
declarative
- GEN
genitive
- GER
gerund
- LOC
locative
- M
masculine
- NOM
nominative
- PASS
passive
- PERF
perfect
- PL
plural
- PST
past
- PTCL
particle
- PTCP
participle
- SG
singular
- TOP
topic
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Appendix. Verb lists
accusative | dative | |||
experiencer | non-experiencer | experiencer | non-experiencer | |
A. German | ||||
1 | plagen ‘annoy’ | behindern ‘hinder’ | schwerfallen ‘be difficult’ | verloren gehen ‘become lost’ |
2 | erstaunen ‘astonish’ | schützen ‘protect’ | wehtun ‘hurt’ | auskippen ‘tip’ |
3 | entmutigen ‘discourage’ | verändern ‘change’ | leidtun ‘feel sorry’ | einlaufen ‘shrink’ |
4 | begeistern ‘enthuse’ | heilen ‘heal’ | schmecken ‘have a taste’ | anbrennen ‘scorch’ |
5 | verängstigen ‘frighten’ | wecken ‘wake up’ | nahegehen ‘affect’ | abbrechen ‘break’ |
6 | interessieren ‘interest’ | abholen ‘pick up’ | leichtfallen ‘be easy’ | volllaufen ‘swamp’ |
7 | erfreuen ‘delight’ | retten ‘rescue’ | entfallen ‘slip the mind’ | auslaufen ‘leak, run out’ |
8 | langweilen ‘bore’ | zerstören ‘destroy’ | zusagen ‘appeal’ | ausgehen ‘run out’ |
9 | anwidern ‘disgust’ | vergiften ‘poison’ | missfallen ‘dissatisfy’ | runterfallen ‘fall down’ |
10 | entzücken ‘rapture’ | verbessern ‘improve’ | vergehen ‘put off’ | kaputtgehen ‘get broken’ |
11 | frustrieren ‘frustrate’ | verletzen ‘injure’ | auffallen ‘attract attention’ | zerreißen ‘rupture’ |
12 | wundern ‘wonder’ | warnen ‘warn’ | einfallen ‘spring to mind’ | umkippen ‘tip over’ |
13 | beunruhigen ‘worry’ | blenden ‘bedazzle’ | gefallen ‘appeal to’ | verschimmeln ‘get moldy’ |
14 | erschrecken ‘scare’ | infizieren ‘infect’ | einleuchten ‘make sense’ | überlaufen ‘flood’ |
15 | aufregen ‘upset’ | aufhalten ‘hold back’ | entgehen ‘fail to notice’ | zerbrechen ‘break’ |
16 | enttäuschen ‘disappoint’ | blamieren ‘disgrace’ | fehlen ‘miss’ | abbrennen ‘burn away’ |
B. Greek | ||||
1 | εκνευρίζω | προειδοποιώ | χεφεύγω | υπερχειλίζω |
eknevrízo | proidopio | ksefévɣo | iperχilízo | |
‘upset’ | ‘warn’ | ‘slip the mind’ | ‘overflow’ | |
2 | ενδιαφέρω | βοηθάω | βρομάω | πέφτω |
enđiaféro | voiθáo | vromáo | péfto | |
‘interest’ | ‘helfen’ | ‘have an unpleasant smell’ | ‘fall down’ | |
3 | χαροποιώ | καταστρέφω | μου φαίνεται εύκολο | κόβω |
χaropió | katastréfo | mu fénete évkolo | kóvo | |
‘delight’ | ‘destroy’ | ‘be easy’ | ‘clod’ | |
4 | καταρρακώνω | δηλητηριάζω | διαφεύγω | χύνομαι |
katarakóno | dilitiriázo | diafévɣo | χínome | |
‘discourage’ | ‘poison’ | ‘fail to notice’ | ‘tip over’ | |
5 | στενοχωρώ | ξυπνάω | μου πέφτει βαρύς | πλημμυρίζω |
stenoχoró | ksipnáo | mu péfti varís | plimirízo | |
‘sadden’ | ‘wake up’ | ‘be difficult’ | ‘swamp’ | |
6 | προβληματίζω | εμποδίζω | μου φαίνεται | μπλοκάρω |
provlimtízo | embodízo | ικανοποιητικό | blokáro | |
‘worry’ | ‘hinder’ | mu fénete ikanopiitikó | ‘block’ | |
‘satisfy’ | ||||
7 | ενθουσιάζω | καθυστερώ | κολλάω | χαλάω |
enθusiázo | kaθisteró | koláo | χaláo | |
‘inspire’ | ‘delay’ | ‘stuck in mind’ | ‘break’ | |
8 | ενοχλώ | τυφλώνω | μου φαίνεται άνοστο | καταστρέφω |
enoχló | tiflóno | mu fénete ánosto | katastréfo | |
‘annoy, bother’ | ‘bedazzle’ | ‘have a bland taste’ | ‘get broken’ | |
9 | ταράζω | προστατεύω | λείπω | μουχλιάζω |
tarázo | prostatevo | lípo | muχliázo | |
‘stir up, upset’ | ‘protect’ | ‘miss’ | ‘get moldy’ | |
10 | κουράζω | βελτιώνω | μου φαίνεται αηδιαστικό | τελειώνω |
kurázo | veltióno | mu fénete aiđiastikó | telióno | |
‘bore’ | ‘improve’ | ‘disgust’ | ‘run out’ | |
11 | σοκάρω | τρυπάω | στοιχίζω | καίγομαι |
sokáro | tripáo | stiχízo | kégome | |
‘shock’ | ‘pierce’ | ‘cost emotionally’ | ‘burn’ | |
12 | απογοητεύω | παραλαμβάνω | μου κακοφαίνεται | σκίζομαι |
apogoitevo | paralamváno | mu kakofénete | skízome | |
‘disappoint’ | ‘pick up’ | ‘dissatisfy’ | ‘tear’ | |
13 | αηδιάζω | αποκοιμίζω | μου φαίνεται βαρύς | λιώνω |
aiđiázo | apokimízo | mu fénete barís | lióno | |
‘disgust’ | ‘drowse’ | ‘be too heavy’ | ‘melt’ | |
14 | τρομάζω | σώζω | μου αρέσει | στραβώνω |
tromázo | sózo | mu arési | stravóno | |
‘frighten’ | ‘rescue’ | ‘appeal’ | ‘bend’ | |
15 | ενθουσιάζω | εξαντλώ | κόβομαι | κολλάω |
enθusiázo | eksantló | kóvome | koláo | |
‘enthuse’ | ‘exhaust’ | ‘be put off’ | ‘get stuck (key)’ | |
16 | ενθουσιάζω | καταστρέφω | μου φαίνεται | σπάω |
enθusiázo | katastréfo | συγκινητικός | spáo | |
‘ravish’ | ‘ruin’ | mu fénete siginitikós | ‘break’ | |
‘affect’ | ||||
C. Hungarian | ||||
1 | vonz ‘attract’ | akadályoz ‘hinder’ | jelent ‘mean sth.’ | besárgul ‘become yellow’ |
2 | bánt (lelkileg) ‘trouble’ | elvakít ‘bedazzle’ | szembeötlik ‘stand out’ | kinyílik ‘open’ |
3 | elcsüggeszt ‘discourage’ | meggyógyít ‘heal’ | ízlik ‘taste’ | begurul vhova ‘roll in easy (ball)’ |
4 | érdekel ‘interest’ | lejárat ‘disgrace’ | hiányzik ‘miss’ | beindul ‘start (car)’ |
5 | izgat ‘excite’ | tönkretesz ‘destroy’ | nehezére esik ‘be difficult’ | kifakul ‘bleach out’ |
6 | nyomaszt ‘distress’ | figyelmeztet ‘warn’ | derogál ‘derogate’ | kijön (számolásnál) ‘result (counting)’ |
7 | bosszant ‘annoy’ | felkelt ‘wake up’ | beválik ‘work well’ | meggyullad ‘ignite’ |
8 | meglep ‘surprise’ | megmérgez ‘poison’ | könnyen megy ‘be easy’ | felolvad ‘unfreeze’ |
9 | megvisel ‘make sb. feel low’ | megvéd ‘protect’ | túl sokáig tart ‘take too long’ | bezáródik ‘lock’ |
10 | elszomorít ‘sadden’ | megerősít ‘strengthen’ | jót tesz ‘do sth. good’ | bekapcsol ‘turn on’ |
11 | lelkesít ‘enthuse’ | megfertőz ‘infect’ | beugrik ‘come to mind’ | sikerül ‘succeed’ |
12 | untat ‘bore’ | elhoz ‘pick up’ | megfelel ‘be suitable’ | megjavul ‘get repaired’ |
13 | lehangol ‘depress’ | feltart ‘hold back’ | megtetszik ‘appeal to’ | összeáll ‘stand to reason’ |
14 | nyugtalanít ‘worry’ | megsebesít ‘injure’ | fájdalmat okoz ‘hurt’ | becsukódik ‘close’ |
15 | kínoz ‘pester, torture’ | megváltoztat ‘change’ | leesik ‘fall down’ | megfő ‘cook’ |
16 | megfélemlít ‘frighten’ | megment ‘save’ | feltűnik ‘appear, attract attention’ | megkel ‘let the dough prove’ |
D. Korean | ||||
1 | 귀찮게 하다 | 방해하다 | 힘겹다 | 날아오다 |
kwichanhkey hata | panghayhata | himkyepta | nalaota | |
‘annoy’ | ‘disrupt’ | ‘be too much’ | ‘come flying’ | |
2 | 기쁘게 하다 | 구원하다 | 부담스럽다 | 들어오다 |
kippukey hata | kwuwenhata | pwutamsulepta | tuleota | |
‘delight’ | ‘rescue’ | ‘distress’ | ‘come in, get in’ | |
3 | 맥빠지게 하다 | 부상시키다 | 후회하다 | 떨어지다 |
maykppacikey hata | pwusangsikhita | hwuhoyhata | ttelecita | |
‘discourage’ | ‘injure’ | ‘feel sorry’ | ‘fall’ | |
4 | 만족스럽게 하다 | 살려내다 | 만족스럽다 | 오다 |
mancoksulepkey hata | sallyenayta | mancoksulepta | ota | |
‘satisfy’ | ‘reanimate’ | ‘be satisfactory’ | ‘come’ | |
5 | 두렵게하다 | 깨우다 | 필요하다 | 달려오다 |
twulyepkey hata | kkaywuta | philyohata | tallyeota | |
‘frighten’ | ‘wake up’ | ‘need’ | ‘come up to’ | |
6 | 흥미있게 하다 | 실어가다 | 쉽다 | 마주오다 |
hungmiisskey hata | silekata | swipta | macwuota | |
‘interest’ | ‘pick up’ | ‘be easy’ | ‘come up to’ | |
7 | 흐뭇하게 하다 | 살려주다 | 부럽다 | 쏟아지다 |
humwushakey hata | sallyecwuta | pwulepta | ssotacita | |
‘please’ | ‘go easy on’ | ‘envy’ | ‘slop’ | |
8 | 지루하게 하다 | 망쳐놓다 | 두렵다 | 스치다 |
cilwuhakey hata | mangchyenohta | twulyepta | suchita | |
‘bore’ | ‘ruin’ | ‘be afraid’ | ‘touch’ | |
9 | 메스껍게 하다 | 중독시키다 | 불쾌하다 | 다가오다 |
meysukkepkey hata | cwungtoksikhita | pwulkhwayhata | takaota | |
‘disgust, sicken’ | ‘poison’ | ‘be obnoxious’ | ‘draw near’ | |
10 | 싫증나게 하다 | 성장시키다 | 맛있다 | 묻다 |
silcungnakey hata | sengcangsikhita | masissta | mwutta | |
‘disgust’ | ‘let grow’ | ‘taste’ | ‘cover with dirt’ | |
11 | 화나게 하다 | 다치게 하다 | 발견되다 | 부딛히다 |
hwanakey hata | tachikey hata | palkyentoyta | pwutithita | |
‘anger’ | ‘injure’ | ‘be apparent, visible’ | ‘push, hustle’ | |
12 | 소름끼치게 하다 | 정신차리게 하다 | 떠오르다 | 튀다 |
solumkkichikey hata | cengsinchalikey hata | tteoluta | thwita | |
‘appall’ | ‘warn’ | ‘come to mind’ | ‘bounce, splatter’ | |
13 | 당황하게 하다 | 눈부시게 하다 | 좋다 | 지급되다 |
tanghoanghakey hata | nwunpwusikey hata | cohta | cikuptoyta | |
‘embarrass’ | ‘dazzle’ | ‘be good’ | ‘be paid’ | |
14 | 불안하게 하다 | 감염시키다 | 떠오르다 | 휘감기다 |
pwulanhakey hata | kamyemsikhita | tteoluta | hwikamkita | |
‘unsettle’ | ‘infect’ | ‘come to mind’ | ‘twist away’ | |
15 | 격분하게 하다 | 지체시키다 | 지루하다 | 걸리다 |
kyekpwunhakey hata | cicheysikhita | cilwuhata | kellita | |
‘outrage’ | ‘retard’ | ‘be boring’ | ‘hang’ | |
16 | 부끄럽게 하다 | 기죽이다 | 그립다 | 닥쳐오다 |
pwukkulepkey hata | kicwukita | kulipta | takchyeota | |
‘shame’ | ‘daunt’ | ‘miss’ | ‘come around’ |
©2016 by De Gruyter Mouton