Abstract
A general description is provided for male and female gametes, their gametangia, and thalli of five species of the siphonaceous green macroalga Codium from Atlantic and Pacific shores. Both types of gametes were biflagellate, the flagella arising from a cap at the tip of the colorless extension of the hyaline apex, which also contained the nucleus. Male gametes were small (mean diameter for five species, 2.5 μm; length ranged from 5 to 10 μm) and had few chloroplasts; female gametes were considerably larger (mean diameter 11 μm; length ranged from 11 to 21 μm) with many chloroplasts. Monthly collections of C. isthmocladum indicated that female seasonality was broader than male seasonality and that hermaphroditic thalli were frequent. Comparison of these reproductive traits with reports for the invasive Codium, C. fragile ssp. tomentosoides, collected from the northwestern Atlantic coast suggested that 1) in localized areas, two subspecies or varieties may coexist, and 2) no functional male gametes were produced by C. fragile populations from this coastline. We speculate that Tokyo and Sagami Bays on the Pacific shores of Honshu, Japan, might contain the source populations for the invasive ssp. tomentosoides. Furthermore, we suggest that the extended presence of mature female thalli coupled with the apparent absence of mature male thalli might cause the prevalence of parthenogenesis in this genus.
References
Arasaki, S., H. Tokuda and K. Fujiyama. 1956. The reproduction and morphogeny in Codium fragile. Bot. Mag. Tokyo69: 39–45.10.15281/jplantres1887.69.39Search in Google Scholar
Berthold, G. 1880. Zur Kenntnis der Siphoneen und Bangiaceen. Mitt. Zool. Sta. Neapel2: 72–82.Search in Google Scholar
Borden, C.A. and J.R. Stein. 1969. Reproduction and early development in Codium fragile (Suringar) Hariot: Chlorophyceae. Phycologia8: 91–99.10.2216/i0031-8884-8-2-91.1Search in Google Scholar
Burrows, E.M. 1991. Seaweeds of the British Isles. Vol. 2: Chlorophyta. Natural History Museum Publications, London. pp. 238.Search in Google Scholar
Chapman, A.S., A.R.O. Chapman and J.E. Lindley. 2001. Killer alga? – A case study on the infamous seaweed invader Codium fragile ssp. tomentosoides. In: (A.R.O. Chapman, ed.) Marine biological invasions: a perspective on Atlantic Canada and New England. Ecology Action Centre, Halifax. pp. 6–7.Search in Google Scholar
Churchill, A.C. and H.W. Moeller. 1972. Seasonal patterns of reproduction in New York populations of Codium fragile (Sur.) Hariot subsp. tomentosoides (Van Goor) Silva. J. Phycol.8: 147–152.10.1111/j.0022-3646.1972.00147.xSearch in Google Scholar
Clayton, M.N. 1988. Evolution and life histories of brown algae. Bot. Mar.31: 379–387.10.1515/botm.1988.31.5.379Search in Google Scholar
Clayton, M.N., K. Kevekordes, M.E.A. Schoenwaelder, C.E. Schmid and C.M. Ashburner. 1998. Parthenogenesis in Hormosira banksii (Fucales, Phaeophyceae). Bot. Mar.41: 23–30.Search in Google Scholar
Coffin, G.W. and A.P. Stickney. 1967. Codium enters Maine waters. Fish. Bull.66: 159–161.Search in Google Scholar
Cotton, A.D. 1912. Clare Island Survey. Marine algae. Proc. R. Irish Acad.31: 1–178.10.5962/bhl.title.60180Search in Google Scholar
Dangeard, P. 1958. Recherches sur quelques “Codium”, leur reproduction et leur parthénogenèse. Le Botaniste42: 65–88.Search in Google Scholar
Dangeard, P. and H. Parriaud. 1956. Sur quelques cas de développement apogamique chez deux espèces de Codium de la région du Sud-Ouest. C. R. Acad. Sci.243: 1981–1983.Search in Google Scholar
Deléphine, R. 1959. Observations sur quelques Codium (Chlorophycées) des côtes françaises. Rev. Gen. Bot.66: 366–394.Search in Google Scholar
Feldmann, J. 1956. Sur la parthénogenèse du Codium fragile (Sur.) Hariot dans la Méditerranée. C. R. Congr. Soc. Sav.243: 305–307.Search in Google Scholar
Fralick, R.A. and A.C. Mathieson. 1973. Ecological studies of Codium fragile in New England, USA. Mar. Biol.19: 127–132.10.1007/BF00353583Search in Google Scholar
Furnari, G. 1974. Segnalazione di Codium fragile (Suringar) Hariot nel largo di Faro (Messina). Mem. Biol. Mar. Oceanogr., Messina4: 193–198.Search in Google Scholar
Gibson, R.J.H. and H.P. Auld. 1900. Codium. Liverpool Mar. Biol. Soc. Mem.4: 326–343.Search in Google Scholar
Godward, M.B.E. 1966. The chromosomes of the algae. St Martin's Press, New York. pp. 212.Search in Google Scholar
Guiry, M.D. and E. Nic Dhonncha. 2003. AlgaeBase version 2.0. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway. http://www.algaebase.org.Search in Google Scholar
Gwo, H. and C. Chen. 1999. Evidence of fusion and artificially initialized parthenogenesis in isogametes of Endarachne binghamiae (Scytosiphonaceae, Phaeophyta) from Taiwan. J. Appl. Phycol.11: 567–577.Search in Google Scholar
Hubbard, C.B. and D.J. Garbary. 2002. Morphological variation of Codium fragile (Chlorophyta) in eastern Canada. Bot. Mar.45: 476–48510.1515/BOT.2002.050Search in Google Scholar
Hurd, A.M. 1916. Codium mucronatum. Pug. So. Mar. Stat. Publ.1: 109–135.Search in Google Scholar
Kapraun, D.F. 1994. Cytophotometric estimation of nuclear DNA contents in thirteen species of the Caulerpales (Chlorophyta). Crypto. Bot.4: 410–418.Search in Google Scholar
Kapraun, D.F. and D.J. Martin. 1987. Karyological studies of three species of Codium (Codiales, Chlorophyta) from coastal North Carolina. Phycologia26: 228–234.Search in Google Scholar
Kapraun, D.F., M.G. Gargiulo and G. Tripodi. 1988. Nuclear DNA and karyotype variation in species of Codium (Codiales, Chlorophyta) from the North Atlantic. Phycologia27: 273–282.Search in Google Scholar
Kim, N.-G. 1988. On the morphology of utricles and the producing period of gametangia in Codium fragile (Suringar) Hariot on the coast of Chungmu. Bull. Tong-yeong Fish. Jr. Coll. 23: 77–83.Search in Google Scholar
Kornmann, P. and P.-H. Sahling. 1977. Meeresalgen von Helgoland. Benthische Grün-, Braun- und Rotalgen. Helgol. wiss. Meeresunters.29: 1–289.Search in Google Scholar
Lewis, R.J., B.Y. Jiang, M. Neushul and X.G. Fei. 1993. Haploid parthenogenetic sporophytes of Laminaria japonica (Phaeophyceae). J. Phycol.29: 363–369.10.1111/j.0022-3646.1993.00363.xSearch in Google Scholar
Lund, S. 1940. On the genus Codium Stack. in Danish waters. Det Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. Biologiske Meddelelser15: 1–37Search in Google Scholar
Malinowski, K.C. 1974. Codium fragile – the ecology and population biology of a colonizing species. Ph.D. dissertation, Yale Univ., New Haven. pp.135.Search in Google Scholar
Mathieson A.C., C.J. Dawes, L.G. Harris and E.J. Hehre. 2003. Expansion of the Asiatic green alga Codium fragile subsp. tomentosoides in the Gulf of Maine. Rhodora105: 1–53.Search in Google Scholar
Nakamura, Y. and M. Tatewaki. 1975. The life history of some species of Scytosiphonales. Sci. Pap. Inst. Algol. Res. Hokkaido Univ.6: 57–90.Search in Google Scholar
Okamura, K. 1914. Icones of Japanese algae. Vol. III, No. VI. Okamura, Tokyo.Search in Google Scholar
Oltmanns, F. 1922. Morphologie und Biologie der Algen, 1: Chrysophyceae–Chlorophyceae. Verlag von G. Fischer, Jena. pp. 459.Search in Google Scholar
Parriaud, H. 1957. Biologie du Codium fragile (Sur.) Hariot (Chlorophycées) dans le bassin d'Arachon. Congr. Soc. Savantes. Sect. Sci.57: 195–196.Search in Google Scholar
Prince, J.S. 1988. Sexual reproduction in Codium fragile ssp. tomentosoides (Chlorophyceae) from the northeast coast of North America. J. Phycol.24: 112–114.10.1111/j.1529-8817.1988.tb04463.xSearch in Google Scholar
Prince, J.S. and W.G. LeBlanc. 1997. Types of reproductive cells in gametangia of Codium fragile ssp. tomentosoides (Chlorophyceae) along the northeast coast of North America. In: (S. Bonotto and S. Berger, eds) Proc. symp. ecol. biol. giant unicellular algae. Mus. Reg. Sci. Nat., Torino. pp. 73–84.Search in Google Scholar
Rico, A. and L. Perez. 1993. Codium fragile var. novae-zelandiae (Chlorophyta, Caulerpales) en Punta Borja, Chubut, Argentina: aspectos reproductivos. Nat. Patag. Cienc. Biol.1: 1–7.Search in Google Scholar
Scagel, R.F. 1966. Marine algae of British Columbia and northern Washington. Part 1: Chlorophyceae (green algae). Natl. Mus. Canada, Bull. No. 207, Biol. Ser.74: 1–257.Search in Google Scholar
Schmidt, O.C. 1928. Über Monözie und Diözie in der Chlorophyceengattung Codium Stackh. Ber. Deut. Bot. Ges.46: 625–630.Search in Google Scholar
Schussnig, B. 1932. Der Generations- und Phasenwechsel bei den Chlorophyceen. 111. Österr. Botan. Z.81: 296–298.10.1007/BF01256422Search in Google Scholar
Silva, P.C. 1955. The dichotomous species of Codium in Britain. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K.34: 565–577.10.1017/S0025315400008821Search in Google Scholar
Silva, P.C. 1957. Codium in Scandinavian waters. Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift51: 117–134.Search in Google Scholar
Smith, G.M. 1955. Cryptogamic botany. Vol. 1 Algae and fungi. McGraw-Hill, N.Y. pp. 546.Search in Google Scholar
Sokal, R.R. and F.J. Rohlf. 1981. Biometry: the principles and practice of statistics in biological research. W.H. Freeman, San Francisco. pp. 859.Search in Google Scholar
Trowbridge, C.D. 1996. Demography and phenology of the intertidal green alga Codium setchellii: the enigma of local scarcity on sand-influenced shores. Mar. Biol.127: 341–351.10.1007/BF00942119Search in Google Scholar
Trowbridge, C.D. 1998. Ecology of the green macroalga Codium fragile (Suringar) Hariot 1889: invasive and non-invasive subspecies. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol.: Ann. Rev.36: 1–64.Search in Google Scholar
Trowbridge C.D., W.F. Farnham and L.F. White. 2004. Thriving populations of the native macroalga Codium tomentosum on Guernsey rocky shores. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K.84: 873–877.10.1017/S0025315404010124hSearch in Google Scholar
Weber, W. 1969. Morphogenetische und keimungsphysiologische Untersuchungen an einigen Meersalgen unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Polarität. Bot. Mar.12: 135–178.10.1515/botm.1969.11-12.1-4.135Search in Google Scholar
Went, F.A.F.C. 1889. Les modes de reproduction du Codium tomentosum. Nederl. Kruidk. Archf. Ser. 2,5: 440–444.Search in Google Scholar
Williams, M.M. 1925. Contributions to the cytology and phylogeny of the siphonaceous algae. I. The cytology of the gametangia of Codium tomentosum (Stack.). Proc. Linn. Soc. New S. Wales50: 98–111.Search in Google Scholar
Yamagishi, Y. and K. Kogame. 1998. Female dominant population of Colpomenia peregrina (Scytosiphonales, Phaeophyceae). Bot. Mar.41: 217–222.10.1515/botm.1998.41.1-6.217Search in Google Scholar
Yoshida, T. 1998. Marine algae of Japan. Uchida Rokakuho Publishing Co., Tokyo. pp. 1222.Search in Google Scholar
©2004 by Walter de Gruyter Berlin New York