Abstract
This paper seeks to examine the potential influences AI may have on the right to a fair trial when it is used in the courtroom. Essentially, AI systems can assume two roles in the courtroom. On the one hand, “AI assistants” can support judges in their decision-making process by predicting and preparing judicial decisions; on the other hand, “robot judges” can replace human judges and decide cases autonomously in fully automated court proceedings. Both roles will be tested against the requirements of the right to a fair trial as protected by Article 6 ECHR.
An important element in this test is the role that a human judge plays in legal proceedings. As the justice system is a social process, the AI assistant is preferred to a situation in which a robot judge would completely replace human judges. Based on extensive literature, various examples and case studies, this paper concludes that the use of AI assistants can better serve legitimacy and guarantee a fair trial.
References
Aletras, N., D. Tsarapatsanis, D. Preoţiuc-Pietro, and V. Lampos. 2016. “Predicting Judicial Decisions of the European Court of Human Rights: A Natural Language Processing Perspective.” Peer J Computer Science 2: e93, https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.93.10.7717/peerj-cs.93Search in Google Scholar
Angwin, J., J. Larson, S. Mattu, and L. Kirchner. 2016. “Machine Bias: There’s Software Used across the Country to Predict Future Criminals. And It’s Biased against Blacks.” ProPublica. https://www.propublica.org/article/machine-bias-risk-assessments-in-criminal-sentencing (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Ash, E. 2018. “Judge, Jury, and Execute File: The Brave New World of Legal Automation.” June 7, 2018. http://www.smf.co.uk/publications/judge-jury-and-execute-file-paper/ (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Ashley, K. D. 2017. Artificial Intelligence and Legal Analytics: New Tools for Law Practice in the Digital Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/9781316761380Search in Google Scholar
Aust, H. P. 2017. “The System Only Dreams in Total Darkness: The Future of Human Rights Law in the Light of Algorithmic Authority.” In German Yearbook of International Law, Vol. 60, edited by von Arnauld, A., D. Kerstin von der, and N. Matz-Lück, 71–90. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot.10.3790/gyil.60.1.71Search in Google Scholar
Bakker, F. 2017. “Terug naar rechter van vlees en bloed dankzij techniek.” de Rechtspraak September 28, 2017. https://www.rechtspraak.nl/Organisatie-en-contact/Organisatie/Raad-voor-de-rechtspraak/Nieuws/Paginas/Terug-naar-rechter-van-vlees-en-bloed-dankzij-techniek.aspx (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Bingham, T. 2011. The Rule of Law. London: Penguin.Search in Google Scholar
Čapek, K. 1920. “R. U. R. (Rossum’s Universal Robots). Translated to English by Selver, Paul, and Playfair, Nigel.” http://uploads.worldlibrary.org/uploads/pdf/201106180331rur.pdf (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
CDCJ (European Committee on Legal Co-Operation). 2018. “Online Dispute Resolution and Compliance with the Right to a Fair Trial and the Right to an Effective Remedy.” Technical Study on Online Dispute Resolution Mechanisms. Council of Europe August 1. https://rm.coe.int/cdcj-2018-5e-technical-study-odr/1680913249 (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
CEPEJ (European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice). 2019. “European Ethical Charter on the Use of Artificial Intelligence in Judicial Systems and Their Environment.” Council of Europe. https://rm.coe.int/ethical-charter-en-for-publication-4-december-2018/16808f699c (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Chen, D. L. 2019. “Machine Learning and Rule of Law.” Computational Analysis of Law 27 (1): 15–42. https://users.nber.org/∼dlchen/papers/Machine_Learning_and_Rule_of_Law.pdf (accessed June 29, 2020).10.37911/9781947864085.16Search in Google Scholar
Citron, D. K. 2007. “Technological Due Process.” Washington University Law Review 85 (6): 1249–1313. https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/law_lawreview/vol85/iss6/2 (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Contini, F. 2020. “Artificial Intelligence and the Transformation of Humans, Law and Technology Interactions in Judicial Proceedings.” Law, Technology and Humans 2 (1): 4–18, https://doi.org/10.5204/lthj.v2i1.1478.10.5204/lthj.v2i1.1478Search in Google Scholar
Corbett-Davies, S., E. Pierson, A. Feller, and S. Goel. 2016. “A Computer Program Used for Bail and Sentencing Decisions Was Labelled Biased against Blacks. It’s Actually Not that Clear.” The Washington Post. October 17 https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/10/17/can-an-algorithm-be-racist-our-analysis-is-more-cautious-than-propublicas/ (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Council of Europe. 2018. “Algorithms and Human Rights: Study on the Human Rights Dimensions of Automated Data Processing Techniques and Possible Regulatory implications.” Prepared by the Committee of Experts on Internet Intermediaries (MSI-NET). DGI(2017)12. Strasbourg. https://rm.coe.int/algorithms-and-human-rights-en-rev/16807956b5 (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Council of Europe. 2019. “Unboxing Artificial Intelligence: 10 Steps to Protect Human Rights.” Recommendation by the Commissioner for Human Rights. https://rm.coe.int/unboxing-artificial-intelligence-10-steps-to-protect-human-rights-reco/1680946e64 (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
D’Amato, A. 1977. “Can/Should Computers Replace Judges?” Georgia Law Review 11: 1277–301. https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/facultyworkingpapers/129 (accessed July 8, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Danziger, S., J. Levav, and L. Avnaim-Pesso. 2011. “Extraneous Factors in Judicial Decisions.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108 (17): 6889–92 April, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1018033108.10.1073/pnas.1018033108Search in Google Scholar
Dieterich, W., C. Mendoza, and T. Brennan. 2016. “COMPAS Risk Scales: Demonstrating Accuracy Equity and Predictive Parity.” Northpointe Inc. http://go.volarisgroup.com/rs/430-MBX-989/images/ProPublica_Commentary_Final_070616.pdf (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Doshi-Velez, F., and M. Kortz. 2017. “Accountability of AI Under the Law: The Role of Explanation.” Berkman Klein Center Working Group on Explanation and the Law, Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society Working Paper. http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:34372584 (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Dressel, J., and H. Farid. 2018. “The Accuracy, Fairness, and Limits of Predicting Recidivism.” Science Advances 4 (1) (January), https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aao5580.10.1126/sciadv.aao5580Search in Google Scholar
ECtHR (European Court of Human Rights). 2019. “Guide on Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Right–Right to a Fair Trial (Civil Limb).” Updated to August 31.https://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Guide_Art_6_ENG.pdf (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
ECtHR. 2020. “Overview ECHR 1959-2019.” https://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Overview_19592019_ENG.pdf (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Flores, A. W., C. T. Lowenkamp, K. Bechtel. 2016. False Positives, False Negatives, and False Analyses: A Rejoinder to “Machine Bias: There’s Software Used Across the Country to Predict Future Criminals. And It’s Biased Against Blacks. Federal Probation 80 (2): 38–46. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/30603203 (accessed July 8, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
FRA (European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights). 2018. “#BigData: Discrimination in Data-Supported Decision Making.” https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/fra-2018-focus-big-data_en.pdf (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Fry, H. 2018. Hello World. How to Be Human in the Age of the Machine. London: Black Swan.Search in Google Scholar
Hammersley, B. 2017. “Concerned about Brexit? Why Not Become an E-Resident of Estonia.” Wired, March 27, 2017. https://www.wired.co.uk/article/estonia-e-resident (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Harvard Law Review 2017. “State v. Loomis: Wisconsin Supreme Court Requires Warning Before Use of Algorithmic Risk Assessment in Sentencing.” Harvard Law Review 130 (5): 1530–7. https://harvardlawreview.org/2017/03/state-v-loomis/ (accessed July 8, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Jongbloed, A. W. 2014. “Van twee kanten: E-Court. Een miskend initiatief om de kosten voor procederende burgers acceptabel te houden.” Rechtsgeleerd Magazijn Themis 2014 (3): 111–7. https://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/301866 (accessed July 8, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Kaplan, J. 2016. Artificial Intelligence: What Everyone Needs to Know. New York: Oxford University Press.10.1093/wentk/9780190602383.001.0001Search in Google Scholar
Katz, D. M., M. J. Bommarito, J. Blackman. 2017. “A General Approach for Predicting the Behavior of the Supreme Court of the United States.” Last Revised January 19, 2017, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2463244 (accessed June 29, 2020).10.2139/ssrn.2463244Search in Google Scholar
Katz, D. M. 2013. “Quantitative Legal Prediction or How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Start Preparing for the Data-Driven Future of the Legal Services Industry.” Emory Law Journal 62: 909–66. http://law.emory.edu/elj/_documents/volumes/62/4/contents/katz.pdf.Search in Google Scholar
Kehl, D., P. Guo, and S. Kessler. 2017. Algorithms in the Criminal Justice System: Assessing the Use of Risk Assessments in Sentencing. Responsive Communities Initiative. Harvard Law School: Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society. http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:33746041.Search in Google Scholar
Kharkovyna, O. 2018. “AI Is Entering Judicial System. Do We Want it There?” Medium. https://medium.com/@oleksii_kh/ai-is-entering-judicial-system-do-we-want-it-there-632f56347c51 (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Knapen, M. 2018. “Juristen Laten Weinig Heel Van Werkwijze e-Court.” Online, September 11, 2018. https://www.mr-online.nl/juristen-laten-weinig-heel-van-werkwijze-e-court/ (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Kugler, L. 2018. “AI Judges and Juries.” Communications of the ACM 61 (12): 19–21, https://doi.org/10.1145/3283222.10.1145/3283222Search in Google Scholar
Lawlor, R. C. 1963. “What Computers Can Do: Analysis and Prediction of Judicial Decisions.” American Bar Association Journal 49 (4): 337–44, www.jstor.org/stable/25722338.Search in Google Scholar
Letsas, G. 2013. “The ECHR as a Living Instrument: its Meaning and Legitimacy.” In Constituting Europe: The European Court of Human Rights in a National, European and Global Context, edited by A. Føllesdal, P. Birgit, and U. Geir, 106–41. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139169295.005.10.2139/ssrn.2021836Search in Google Scholar
Lewis-Kraus, G. 2016. “The Great A.I. Awakening.” The New York Times Magazine December 14, 2016. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/14/magazine/the-great-ai-awakening.html (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Liptak, A. 2017. Sent to Prison by a Software Program’s Secret Algorithms. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/01/us/politics/sent-to-prison-by-a-software-programs-secret-algorithms.html (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Liu, H.-W., C.-F. Lin, and Y.-J. Chen. 2019. “Beyond State v Loomis: Artificial Intelligence, Government Algorithmization, and Accountability.” International Journal of Law and Information Technology 27 (2): 122–41 (Summer). https://doi.org/10.1093/ijlit/eaz001.10.1093/ijlit/eaz001Search in Google Scholar
McCullan, T. 2019. “A.I. Judges: The Future of Justice Hangs in the Balance.” Medium Magazine 02-2019 (February). https://medium.com/s/reasonable-doubt/a-i-judges-the-future-of-justice-hangs-in-the-balance-6dea1540daaa (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Medvedeva, M., M. Vols, and M. Wieling. 2020. “Using Machine Learning to Predict Decisions of the European Court of Human Rights.” Artificial Intelligence and Law 28 (2): 237–66 (June). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10506-019-09255-y.10.1007/s10506-019-09255-ySearch in Google Scholar
Mittelstadt, B. D., P. Allo, M. Taddeo, S. Wachter, and L. Floridi. 2016. “The Ethics of Algorithms: Mapping the Debate.” 1–21 December. https://doi.org/10.1177/2053951716679679 (accessed June 29, 2020).10.1177/2053951716679679Search in Google Scholar
Mole, N., and C. Harby. 2006. “The Right to a Fair Trial. A Guide to the Implementation of Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights.” Council of Europe: Human Rights Handbooks Series. 3. https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=090000168007ff49 (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Morison, J., and A. Harkens. 2019. “Re-Engineering Justice? Robot Judges, Computerised Courts and (Semi) Automated Legal Decision-Making.” Legal Studies 39 (4): 618–35 July. https://doi.org/10.1017/lst.2019.5.10.1017/lst.2019.5Search in Google Scholar
Nakad-Weststrate, H.W.R., J.J. Van Den Herik, A.W. Jongbloed, and A.-B. M. Salem. 2015. “The Rise of the Robotic Judge in Modern Court Proceedings.” In Conference Paper. The 7th International Conference on Information Technology 59–67. http://icit.zuj.edu.jo/ICIT15/DOI/Artificial_Intelligence/0009.pdf.Search in Google Scholar
Niiler, E. 2019. “Can AI Be a Fair Judge in Court? Estonia Thinks So.” Wired, March 25, 2019. https://www.wired.com/story/can-ai-be-fair-judge-court-estonia-thinks-so/ (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Northpointe Inc. 2019. “Practitioner’s Guide to COMPAS Core.” http://www.northpointeinc.com/downloads/compas/Practitioners-Guide-COMPAS-Core-_031915.pdf (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Philipsen, S., and E. Themeli. 2019. “Een introductie op de robotrechter.” Rechtstreeks 2: 46–9. https://www.rechtspraak.nl/SiteCollectionDocuments/rechtstreeks-2019-02.pdf (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Prakken, H. 2018. “Komt de robotrechter er aan?” Nederlands Juristenblad 4 (January): 269–74. https://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/369276 (accessed July 8, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Prins, Corien, and J. van der Roest. 2018. “AI en de rechtspraak.” Nederlands Juristenblad 93 (4): 260–268. https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/20232594/NJB_1804_ART_1.pdf (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Prins, C. 2018. “Digital Justice.” Computer Law & Security Review 34 (4): 920–3 August. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2018.05.024.10.1016/j.clsr.2018.05.024Search in Google Scholar
Queudot, M., and M.-J. Meurs. 2018. “Artificial Intelligence and Predictive Justice: Limitations and Perspectives.” In Recent Trends and Future Technology in Applied Intelligence. 31st International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Other Applications of Applied Intelligent Systems, IEA/AIE 2018. Lecture Notes in Computer Science 10868, edited by Mouhoub, M., S. Samira, M. Otmane Ait, and A. Moonis, 889–97. Cham: Springer International Publishing.10.1007/978-3-319-92058-0_85Search in Google Scholar
Reiling, D. 2020. “De rechtspraktijk: De rechtspraktijk: toepassing van AI in de rechtspraak.” Computerrecht: 40–5. English version available at https://home.hccnet.nl/a.d.reiling/html/Reiling%20Courts%20and%20AI%20v%201.0.pdf.Search in Google Scholar
Sikkut, S., V. Ott, and K. Vaher. 2020. “#KrattAI: The Next Stage of Digital Public Services in #eEstonia.” February 24, 2020. https://www.kratid.ee/visionpaper (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Simonis, M. 2019. “Effective Court Administration and Professionalism of Judges as Necessary Factors Safeguarding the Mother of Justice-the Right to a Fair Trial.” International Journal for Court Administration 10 (1): 47–58. https://doi.org/10.18352/ijca.294.10.18352/ijca.294Search in Google Scholar
Sourdin, T., and R. Cornes. 2018. “Do Judges Need to Be Human? The Implications of Technology for Responsive Judging.” In The Responsive Judge. Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice, edited by T. Sourdin, and A. Zariski, 87–119. Singapore: Springer Nature, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1023-2_4.10.1007/978-981-13-1023-2_4Search in Google Scholar
Sourdin, T. 2018. “Judge v. Robot: Artificial Intelligence and Judicial Decision-Making.” University of New South Wales Law Journal 41 (4) (November): 1114–33. http://www.unswlawjournal.unsw.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Sourdin.pdf (accessed July 8, 2020).10.53637/ZGUX2213Search in Google Scholar
Stichting e-Court. 2018. “Procesreglement e-Court 2017 (“Rules of Procedure”).” http://www.e-court.nl/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Procesreglement-e-Court-2017_20180201.pdf (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Stone, P., R. Brooks, E. Brynjolfsson, C. Ryan, O. Etzioni, G. Hager, J. Hirschberg, S. Kalyanakrishnan, E. Kamar, S. Kraus, K. Leyton-Brown, D. Parkes, W. Press, A. Saxenian, J. Shah, M. Tambe, and A. Teller. 2016. “Artificial Intelligence and Life in 2030. One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence: Report of the 2015-2016 Study Panel.” Stanford (CA). http://ai100.stanford.edu/2016-report (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Surden, H. 2014. “Machine Learning and Law.” Washington Law Review 89 (1): 87–116. (March). https://www.law.uw.edu/wlr/print-edition/print-edition/vol-89/1/machine-learning-and-law (accessed July 8, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Susskind, R. 2019. Online Courts and the Future of Justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/oso/9780198838364.001.0001Search in Google Scholar
Taruffo, M. 1998. “Judicial Decisions and Artificial Intelligence.” Artificial Intelligence and Law 6 (2–4): 311–24, https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1008230426783.10.1007/978-94-015-9010-5_7Search in Google Scholar
Tegmark, M. 2018. Life 3.0: Being Human in the Age of Artificial Intelligence. London: Penguin.10.1201/9781351251389-5Search in Google Scholar
Tromans, R. 2017. “Legal AI: A Beginner’s Guide.” https://blogs.thomsonreuters.com/legal-uk/2017/02/20/legal-ai-beginners-guide/ (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Turner, J. 2019. Robot Rules: Regulating Artificial Intelligence. Cham: Springer International / Palgrave Macmillan.10.1007/978-3-319-96235-1Search in Google Scholar
Van den Herik, H. J. 1991. Kunnen Computers Rechtspreken? Arnhem: Gouda Quint.Search in Google Scholar
Van den Herik, H. J. 2016. “In 2030 Zullen Computers Rechtspreken.” Redactie Mr. https://www.mr-online.nl/in-2030-zullen-computers-rechtspreken/ (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Van den Hoogen, R. H. 2007. “E-Justice, beginselen van behoorlijke elektronische rechtspraak.” PhD Diss., Utrecht University.Search in Google Scholar
Van der Put, M. 2019. “Kan artificiële intelligentie de rechtspraak betoveren?” Rechtstreeks 2019 (2): 50–60. https://www.rechtspraak.nl/SiteCollectionDocuments/rechtstreeks-2019-02.pdf (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Verhulp, E., and R. Rietveld. 2019. “Hoe expertsystemen de rechtspraak kunnen helpen.” Rechtstreeks 2019 (2): 39–45. https://www.rechtspraak.nl/SiteCollectionDocuments/rechtstreeks-2019-02.pdf (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
Vetzo, M., J. Gerards, and R. Nehmelman. 2018. Algoritmes en grondrechten. Den Haag: Boom juridisch.Search in Google Scholar
Volokh, E. 2019. “Chief Justice Robots.” Duke Law Journal 68: 1135–92, https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/dlj/vol68/iss6/2.Search in Google Scholar
Von Simson, C. 2019. “How ROSS AI Turns Legal Research on its Head.” https://blog.rossintelligence.com/post/how-ross-ai-turns-legal-research-on-its-head (accessed June 29, 2020).Search in Google Scholar
© 2020 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston