Abstract
The present in vivo study was designed to reveal whether amygdalin is able to cause changes in the endocrine profile and thus alter the key reproductive and physiological functions, using rabbits as a biological model. 40 adult female rabbits were randomly divided into five groups: the control group without any amygdalin administration, two experimental groups received a daily intramuscular injection of amygdalin at dose 0.6 and 3.0 mg kg-1 b.w. and other two groups were fed by crushed apricot seeds at dose 60 and 300 mg kg-1 b.w., mixed with commercial feed over the period of 28 days. The body weight of each experimental animal was recorded weekly during the whole study. Plasma levels of steroid (progesterone, 17β-estradiol, testosterone), thyroid (triiodothyronine, thyroxine, thyroid-stimulating hormone), as well as anterior pituitary (prolactin, luteinizing hormone) hormones were assessed by ELISA. Intramuscular application of amygdalin did not affect (P ≥ 0.05) the plasma levels of none of the endocrine regulators selected. Oral form of amygdalin did not induce significant changes in the plasma levels of examined hormones either. Similarly, no clinically noticeable changes in the average body weight of experimental animals were observed. Our findings indicate that intramuscular and oral application of amygdalin did not significantly affect the plasma levels of studied endocrine regulators in experimental rabbits. In this in vivo study, no obvious beneficial or negative effects of amygdalin on the physiological functions of female rabbits were demonstrated. Short-term intake of amygdalin at the recommended doses does not represent risk for animal health.
Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported by the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic projects no. 1/0039/16, 011SPU-4/2016 KEGA, APVV-0304-12, and European Community under project no. 26220220180: Building Research Centre “AgroBioTech”.
Declaration of interest: The authors have reported that no competing interests exist.
References
Ames M.M., Moyer T.P., Kovach J.S., Moertel C.G. & Rubin J. 1981. Pharmacology of amygdalin (Laetrile) in cancer patients. Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. 6: 51–57. DOI: 10.1007/BF00253010Search in Google Scholar
Balazi A., Foldesiova M., Chrastinova L., Sirotkin A.V. & Chrenek P. 2013. The effect of herbal plants Yucca, schidigera, and Curcuma longa on rabbit female reproduction. Slovak J. Anim. Sci. 46: 161–171.Search in Google Scholar
Balmer C. 1998. Alternative therapies in cancer patient care. Highlight. Oncol. Pract. 15: 83–84.Search in Google Scholar
Chang H.K., Shin M.S., Yang H.Y., Lee J.W., Kim Y.S., Lee M.H., Kim J., Kim K.H. & Kim C.J. 2006. Amygdalin induces apoptosis through regulation of Bax and Bcl-2 expressions in human DU145 and LNCaP prostate cancer cells. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 29: 1597–1602. DOI: 10.1248/bpb.29.1597Search in Google Scholar
Chedrese J.P. (ed.). 2009. Reproductive Endocrinology: A Molecular Approach. Springer Science+Business Media LLC., New York, 361 pp. ISBN: 978-0-387-88186-7Search in Google Scholar
Chow H.H.S., Garland L.L., Heckman-Stoddard B.M., Hsu C.H., Butler V.D., Cordova C.A., Chew W.M. & Cornelison T.L. 2014. A pilot clinical study of resveratrol in postmenopausal women with high body mass index: effects on systemic sex steroid hormones. J. Transl. Med. 12: 223. DOI: 10.1186/s12967-014-0223-0Search in Google Scholar
EFSA CONTAM Panel (EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain). 2016. Acute health risks related to the presence of cyanogenic glycosides in raw apricot kernels and products derived from raw apricot kernels. EFSA J. 14 (4): 4424. DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2016.4424Search in Google Scholar
FAO/WHO (Food and Agricultural Organization/World Health Organization). 2012. Safety evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. Prepared by the seventy-fourth meeting of the joint FAO/WHO expert committee on food additives (JECFA). WHO Food Additives Series 65: 1–825. ISBN: 978-92-4-166065-5Search in Google Scholar
Fukuda T., Ito H., Mukainaka T., Tokuda H., Nishino H. & Yoshida T. 2003. Anti-tumor promoting effect of glycosides from Prunus persica seeds. Biol. Pharma. Bull. 26: 271–273. PMID: 1257669310.1248/bpb.26.271Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Galik B., Arpasova H., Biro D., Rolinec M., Simko M., Juracek M. & Herkel R. 2014. The effect of dietary Rhus coriaria L. on table eggs yolk nutrients composition. Acta Fytotechn. Zootechn. 17 (3): 93–95. DOI: 10.15414/afz.2014.17.03.93-95Search in Google Scholar
Galik B., Biro D., Juracek M., Simko M. & Gyongyova E. 2009. Koncentracije mineralnih elemenata u različitim konzerviranim krmivima. The concentration of mineral elements in different conserved feeds. Krmiva: Časopis o hranidbi životinja proizvodnji i tehnologiji krme [Krmiva: Review for Animal Feeding, Pproduction and Feed Technology] (Zagreb) 51 (4): 223–227.Search in Google Scholar
Halenar M., Medvedova M., Maruniakova N. & Kolesarova A. 2015. Assessment of a potential preventive ability of amygdalin in mycotoxin-induced ovarian toxicity. J. Environ. Sci. Health. 50: 411–416. DOI: 10.1080/03601234.2015.1011956Search in Google Scholar
Huebner J., Micke O., Muecke R., Buentzel J., Prott F.J., Kleeberg U., Senf B. & Muenstedt K. 2014. User rate of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) of patients visiting a counseling facility for CAM of a German comprehensive cancer center. Anticancer Res. 34: 943–948. PMID: 24511037Search in Google Scholar
Hwang H.J., Lee H.J., Kim CH.J., Shim I. & Hahm D.H. 2008. Inhibitory effect of amygdalin on lipopolyccharide-inducible TNF-α and IL-1β mRNA expression and carrageenan-induced rats arthritis. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 18: 1641–1647. PMID: 18955812Search in Google Scholar
Igarashi M. 1988. Kampo medicine in endocrinology, pp. 157–160. In: Hosoya E. & Yamamura Y. (eds), Recent Advances in the Pharmacology of Kampo (Japanese herbal) Medicines: Proceedings of the Satellite Meeting on Kampo (Japanese Herbal) Medicines of the 10th International Congress of Pharmacology, Auckland, August 19–21, Excerpta Medica, Tokyo, 470 pp. ISBN: 0444810641, 9780444810649Search in Google Scholar
Kolesarova A., Capcarova M., Bakova Z., Galik B., Juracek M., Simko M. & Sirotkin A.V. 2011. The effect of bee pollen on secretion activity, markers of proliferation and apoptosis of porcine ovarian granulosa cells in vitro. J. Environ. Sci. Health. 46: 207–212. DOI: 10.1080/03601234.2011.540202Search in Google Scholar
Kolesarova A., Capcarova M., Maruniakova N., Lukac N., Ciereszko R. & Sirotkin A. V. 2012. Resveratrol inhibits reproductive toxicity induced by Deoxynivalenol. J. Environ. Sci. Health. 47: 1329–134. DOI: 10.1080/10934529.2012.672144Search in Google Scholar
Kolesarova A., Roychoudhury S., Slivkova J., Sirotkin A.V., Capcarova M. & Massanyi P. 2010. In vitro study on the effects of lead and mercury on porcine ovarian granulosa cells. J. Environ. Sci. Health. 45: 320–331. DOI: 10.1080/10934520903467907Search in Google Scholar
Londonkar R.L. & Nayaka H.B. 2013. Effect of ethanol extract of Portulaca oleracea L on ovulation and estrous cycle in female albino rats. J. Pharma. Res. 6: 431–436. DOI: 10.1016/j.jopr.2013.02.030Search in Google Scholar
Makarević J., Rutz J., Juengel E., Kaulfuss S., Reiter M., Tsaur I., Bartsch G., Haferkamp A. & Blaheta R.A. 2014. Amygdalin blocks bladder cancer cell growth in vitro by diminishing cyklin A and cdk2. PLoS One 9: e105590. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0105590Search in Google Scholar
Milazzo S., Lejeune S. & Ernst E. 2007. Laetrile for cancer: a systematic review of the clinical evidence. Support Care Cancer. 15: 583–595. DOI: 10.1007/s00520-006-0168-9Search in Google Scholar
Moertel C.G., Ames M.M., Kovach J.S., Moyer T.P., Rubin J.R. & Tinker J.H. 1981. A pharmacologic and toxicological study of amygdalin. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 245: 591–594. DOI: 10.1001/jama.245.6.591Search in Google Scholar
Medvedova M., Kolesarova A., Capcarova M., Labuda R., Sirotkin A.V., Kovacik J. & Bulla J. 2011. The effect of deoxynivalenol on the secretion activity, proliferation and apoptosis of porcine ovarian granulosa cells in vitro. J. Environ. Sci. Health. 46: 213–219. DOI: 10.1080/03601234.2011.540205Search in Google Scholar
Nelson K.W. 1998. Alternative cancer treatments. Highlights in Oncology Practice 15 (4): 85–93.Search in Google Scholar
Ranzenigo G., Caloni F., Cremonesi F., Aad P.Y. & Spicer L.J. 2008. Effects of Fusarium mycotoxins on steroid production by porcine granulosa cells. Anim. Reprod. Sci. 107: 115–130. DOI: 10.1016/j.anireprosci.2007.06.023Search in Google Scholar
Saalu L.C., Akunna G.G. & Ajayi J.O. 2013. Modulating role of bitter leaf on spermatogenic and steroidogenesis functions of the rat testis. Am. J. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 3: 314–321. DOI: 10.3923/ajbmb.2013.314.321Search in Google Scholar
Sakarkar D.N. & Deshmukh V.N. 2011. Ethnopharmacological review of traditional medicinal plants for anticancer activity. Int. J. PharmTech. Res. 3: 298–308.Search in Google Scholar
Usuki S. 1987. Effects of Hachimijiogan, Tokishakuyakusan and Keishibukuryogan on progesterone secretions by corpus luteum. Am. J. Chin. Med. 15: 109. DOI: 10.1142/S0192415X 8700014XSearch in Google Scholar
Usuki S. 1990. Effects of Tokishakuyakusan and Keishibukuryogan on steroidogenesis by rat preovulatory follicles in vivo. Am. J. Chin. Med. 18 (3–4): 149–156. DOI: 10.1142/S0192 415X90000198Search in Google Scholar
Usuki S. 1991. Effects of Hachimijiogan, Tokishakuyakusan and Keishibukuryogan, Ninjinto and Unkeito on estrogen and progesterone secretion in preovulatory follicles incubated in vitro. Am. J. Chin. Med. 19: 65–71. DOI: 10.1142/S0192415X91000107Search in Google Scholar
Yan J., Tong S., Li J. & Lou J. 2006. Preparative isolation and purification of amygdalin from Prunus armeniaca L. with high recovery by high-speed countercurrent chromatography. J. Liq. Chrom. Rel. Tech. 29: 1271–1279. DOI: 10.1080/10826070600598985Search in Google Scholar
Yasui T., Matsuzaki T., Ushigoe K., Kuwahara A., Maegawa M., Furumoto H., Aono T. & Irahara M. 2003. Stimulatory effect of the herbal medicine Keishi-bukuryo-gan on a cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant, in rat ovarian cell culture. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol. 50: 90–97. DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-0897.2003.00055.xSearch in Google Scholar
Yildirim F.A. & Askin M.A. 2010. Variability of amygdalin content in seeds of sweet or bitter apricot cultivars in Turkey. Afr. J. Biotech. 9 (39): 6522–6524. DOI: 10.5897/AJB10.884Search in Google Scholar
Zhou C., Qian L., Ma H., Yu X., Zhang Y., Qu W., Zhang X. & Xiam W. 2012. Enhancement of amygdalin activated with β-D glucosidase on HepG2 cells proliferation and apoptosis. Carbohydr. Polym. 90: 516–523. DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2012.05.073Search in Google Scholar
© 2017 Institute of Zoology, Slovak Academy of Sciences
