Development of Relations Between China and Czechoslovakia and Its Successor States, Czechia and Slovakia

: Over the past 72 years since China established diplomatic relations with Czechoslovakia in 1949, bilateral relations between China and Czechoslovakia and its successor states, Czechia and Slovakia, have seen ups and downs, thanks to evolving domestic and international situations. While China-Czechoslovakia relations showed distinguishing features in different periods, relationships between China and Czechia, and between China and Slovakia have patterns of their own. To be more specific, China-Czechia relations have experienced more twists and turns influenced by factors like ideology, partisan interests, and history which led Czech political elites to adopt different policies towards China.


Background of the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between China and Czechoslovakia
On October 1, 1949, the People's Republic of China was born. On October 6, Czechoslovakia established diplomatic relations with China, shortly after the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Romania and Hungary. The establishment of ties both reflected the evolution of domestic and international situations and enduring friendship between the two peoples.

Evolution of Domestic and International Situations
At the very beginning, China inherited a worrying situation and had to grapple with many challenges. The international landscape posed another tricky problem: Two blocs represented by the United States and the Soviet Union were locked in bitter rivalry. Anti-China forces led by the U.S. tried to contain China through military threats, political encirclement and economic blockade. It means that the priorities of China's foreign policy were to safeguard national interests, break imperialist isolation, strengthen governance and revive the economy. Back then it was China's natural choice to establish diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union and other socialist countries in Eastern Europe.
In the wake of the February events in 1948, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSC) gained nationwide leadership. To secure its position, the party strengthened ties with the Soviet Union and other socialist countries. In November 1948, President Klement Gottwald announced that strong alliance with the Soviet Union was the primary and fundamental condition for the existence of a people's democratic state. Shortly thereafter, the country changed from a former ally of the Soviet Union to one of its satellite states with unquestioning obedience (Dejmek, 2010). The fact that countries in the Socialist Camp, such as Czechoslovakia, established diplomatic relations with China is the materialization of their national interests and the practice of justice. As for the former, these countries were driven by their own strategic interests to provide support for China to gain a foothold in the international arena. On the other hand, it is worth noting that their support extended from China's revolutionary period into the birth of PRC. Their sympathy, support and diplomatic recognition spoke volumes about enduring friendship and amity between the peoples (Chen, 2009).

Enduring Friendship
China and Czechoslovakia have shared a close bond for a long time. As early as the beginning of the 19th century, Czechoslovakia sent experts in beer brewing and glassmaking to China (Jiang, 2016).
In June 1919, the Republic of China and the First Czechoslovak Republic  achieved mutual recognition. In 1930, the two countries signed the Friendship and Commerce Treaty. On December 6, 1932, the Czechoslovak Foreign Minister Edvard Beneš delivered a speech that was the most radical condemnation of Japanese aggression against China at the headquarter of the League of Nations in Geneva. This speech won great sympathy for both Edvard Beneš and Czechoslovakia in China (Bakešová, 2020). From 1919 to 1939, China-Czechoslovakia relations were further strengthened through economic and trade exchanges. Since Czechoslovakia was an industrial power, its export far outweighed import from China, with machinery and arms as major items. In the 1920s and 1930s, when China's own industry was still in its infancy, Czechoslovakia helped China build its first power plant of real significance in the then Zhabei District (now part of Jing'an District), Shanghai.

Dinstinct Features of China-Czechoslovakia Relations in Different Periods
From 1949 to 1992, influenced by the political landscape both at home and abroad, the bilateral relations assumed noticeable features in different periods. Golden Period (1949-1960 In spite of the huge geographical distance, China and Czechoslovakia had conducted close cooperation in the ten years since the establishment of diplomatic relations. Brotherly partnership was evidenced in six aspects.  (Lauerová, 2007). Major exports from China were raw materials such as iron ore, tin, raw rubber, wool and tobacco, and foodstuffs like tea, rice, vegetable oil and meat products. Czechoslovak exports include equipment sets, machine tools, forging press, trucks and tractors. China had become the fifth largest trading partner of Czechoslovakia, while the latter was the third largest to the former, after the Soviet Union and the German Democratic Republic (GDR). 6) A wide array of joint programs in culture and education. In December 1950, Czechoslovakia sent a delegation to China. It was a prelude for cultural exchanges between the two countries. In May 1952, the first agreement on cultural cooperation was signed. In October of the same year, Lu Xun Library was established in Prague, housing the most extensive collection on sinology in Central Europe. This was followed by exhibitions, film weeks, concerts, opera performances and literary translation projects. From 1953, intergovernmental student exchange programs were launched one after another. Prestigious universities in Czechoslovakia such as Charles University, Masaryk University and Czech Technical University in Prague trained a wealth of talented personnel for China. In 1954, the Department of Czech Language and Literature was set up at Peking University. Rapport (1960Rapport ( -1989 The early 1960s witnessed increasingly strained Sino-Soviet relations soured by ideological confrontation. Given that Czechoslovakia had closer ties with the Soviet Union in politics, economics and military, China-Czechoslovakia relationship encountered headwinds. High-level political exchanges were brought to an end, and economic and cultural cooperation was significantly undermined. In 1963, Czechoslovak Consulate General in Shanghai was closed, along with the office of Xinhua News Agency in Prague. In 1967, interparty relations were cut off. On August 21, 1968, Warsaw Pact forces led by the Soviet Union invaded Czechoslovakia under the pretext of stalling the "Prague Spring" reforms. This interference was condemned by Premier Zhou Enlai. China expressed discontent and criticism when KSC leader Gustáv Husák rose to power in 1969, bringing Czechoslovakia and Soviet relations even closer. Clear evidence was seen in 1963 trade volume which plummeted to 15% of that in 1959. The gloomy picture had not changed until 1969 (Lauerová, 2007). The situation took a turn for the better as China and the Soviet Union resumed diplomatic relations at the ambassadorial level and signed new trade agreements in 1970. Member states of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon) including Czechoslovakia began to strengthen relations with China. In June 1971, China reassigned her ambassador to Czechoslovakia after a four-year suspension. In October of the same year, Czechoslovakia supported the restoration of China's lawful seat in the UN. In 1973, the operation of Xinhua News Agency and Czech News Agency (ČTK) was normalized, along with mutual visits of vice ministers of foreign trade on a regular basis, and cross-disciplinary meetings on technological cooperation. In the same year, the two sides also signed a protocol on barter and settlement methods. From 1973 to 1978, bilateral trade had kept growing.

From Strained Relations to Resumed
In the mid-1980s, China-Czechoslovakia relations were fully normalized. Frequent mutual visits of senior officials during the period of 1986-1989 were resumed to the level of the 1950s. In 1986, interparty relations began to show the sign of normalization, as Czechoslovakia foreign minister made his first official visit to China since the establishment of the diplomatic relations. In 1987, State Councilor and Foreign Minister Wu Xueqian visited Czechoslovakia, representing the ministry to sign a cooperation protocol and exchanged notes on the establishment of the consulates general in Shanghai and Bratislava. In the same year, Czechoslovak Prime Minister Lubomír Štrougal visited China. In 1988, KSČ General Secretary Miloš Jakeš and Czechoslovak President Gustáv Husák paid visits to China, and Vice Premier of China Yao Yilin returned the visit.
The two countries agreed to establish a committee on economic, technical, trade and scientific cooperation, signed a 10-year agreement on economic and technical cooperation, and entered into agreements where Czechoslovakia provided two 500,000-kilowatt generators, and where the two governments prevent double taxation and tax evasion, and mapped a blueprint for long-term economic, scientific and technical cooperation. Technological transfers were also gaining momentum as Czechoslovakia transferred technologies like the manufacturing of air-jet spinning machines and motor lorries. In 1989, trade volume hit a record high of USD 910 million (Web of China, 2005). Relations (1990Relations ( -1992 Dramatic political changes in November 1989 influenced Czechoslovakia in two ways: transformation from a socialist to a capitalist country, and historic opportunities to break away from the control of the Soviet Union and take the initiative to formulate China policies. Since Czechoslovakia had no political interests in the Far East, policy priorities were to maintain appropriate relations with China while benefitting from her economic prosperity (Fürst, 2004). The Chinese government respected the right of Czechoslovakia to choose its own development path, and followed the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence regardless of differences in social systems, ideologies and values (Yan, 2009).

New Challenges Facing Bilateral
This period saw a decrease in high-level visits. In September 1991, Chinese State Councilor and Foreign Minister Qian Qichen paid an official visit to Czechoslovakia, and in December, Czechoslovak Prime Minister Marian Calfa returned the visit. Bilateral relations were affected by differences of opinion on issues related to Tibet, Taiwan, human rights etc.
In 1991, bilateral trade was settled in cash instead of bookkeeping, drastically decreasing the trade volume which maintained at a low level even after steady increase.
recognized the two countries and established diplomatic relations with them at the ambassadorial level. Both sides agreed to continue to use October 6, 1949 as the date of establishment of diplomatic relations between China and the new states.
After independence, like other Central and Eastern European Countries (CEEC), the two countries were committed to achieving political and economic transformation, shifting the focus of foreign policy to join the EU and NATO at an earlier date, and strengthening relations with neighboring countries. In the early 1990s, China introduced the strategy of "keeping a low profile". Connection and understanding of the three countries were limited since China enhanced economic cooperation with Western countries, and CEECs had closer ties with Western Europe. Nevertheless, combined effects of the international financial crisis and euro-zone debt crisis presented an opportunity for China and CEECs to engage more. China-CEEC Cooperation, Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and China-EU Comprehensive Strategic Partnership have provided further impetus to strengthen relations between China and the two countries. However, the previous two years had witnessed political tug of war in Czechia and Slovakia, the United States' alliance with CEECs to contain China, and the EU's ambivalent claim of China as both partner and systemic rival, thus adding another strain on the relations.

Dramatic Changes in China-Czechia Relations
Czechia's independence created opportunities for the two countries to resume cooperation. In October 1994, two deputy foreign ministers signed an exchange of letters confirming the continued validity of the treaties and agreements concluded between China and Czechoslovakia. Yet the bilateral relations experience ups and downs due to differences in political systems, values and history which drove the two countries to adopt different perspectives on issues related to Taiwan, Tibet, human rights etc. Trade cooperation, however, sustains the relationship. Steady progress was also made in fields like culture, technology and education. Agreements in these areas were signed on a regular basis.  Czech administration changed following the election of the Chamber of Deputies, which took place in October 2017. In October 2018, opposition parties controlled the senate and Prague municipal government. At the same time, China-US relations deteriorated sharply. The EU has labelled China both as partner and systemic rival. All these factors create discord in China-Czechia relationship. In December 2018, the National Cyber and Information Security Agency (NCISA) of the Czech Republic issued a warning against the use of equipment and software produced by Huawei and ZTE to avoid a security threat. In May 2019, Prague 5G Security Conference was held and participated by representatives from 32 countries, including the United States, Canada and Japan. But China was not invited. Czech's Security Information Service (BIS) issued annual reports portraying China as a security threat. Prague municipal government publicly challenged the one-China principle on major issues concerning China's core interests, such as issues related to Taiwan

China-Slovakia Relations: Steady Progress Amid Challenges
After gaining independence, Slovakia was acutely aware that although China has no great bearing on the country's interests and foreign policy, it cannot afford to underestimate the importance of China, an ascendant Asian power and a massive market with great potential. For China respects the development path chosen by the Slovak people to fit their national conditions. China is also willing to deepen cooperation. The two countries have identified economic and trade cooperation as the anchor of the bilateral relations. Nevertheless, political mutual trust deepened by high-level visits ensures smooth development of bilateral relations. It is worth noting that despite the fact that Slovak left-wing and right-wing governments adopted different approaches to dealing with China, that is, the rightwing governments were bent on forging closer ties with Chinese Taiwan and preaching human rights, and the left-wing governments promoted economic cooperation, differences in the overall direction of foreign policy of Slovakia towards China are not essential until early 2020, when a center-right coalition government took office (Turcsányi, 2016). The one-China principle was followed, which means the government refrains from establishing any form of official contact or communication with Chinese Taiwan. The same attitude applied to issues related to Tibet and human rights. The two presidents also expressed their wish to deepen bilateral and multilateral cooperation, maintain engagement on a regular basis, and attach great importance to mutually beneficial economic cooperation.
In the 1990s, bilateral trade experienced occasional ups and downs, and twoway investment was at a low level. But as Slovakia opened wider to the outside world, China acceded to the World Trade Organization (WTO), and Slovakia joined the EU, the two countries shared a stronger bond. China-CEEC Cooperation and BRI provided fresh impetus. In November 2015, Slovakia signed a MOU with China to build the BRI, becoming one of the first European countries to support the initiative. In November 2016, China-CEEC Virtual Technology Transfer Center was inaugurated in Bratislava. Slovakia wanted to get aboard the fast train of China's rapid economic growth, attracted Chinese greenfield investments to create jobs, increased exports to China, improved infrastructure and allured more Chinese travelers. Endowed with geographical advantage, and low-wage yet well-educated workforce, Slovakia is a transport corridor linking Eurasian networks of broad-and standard-gauge railroads, and has a great potential in R&D and innovation. In the past decade, bilateral trade had soared from USD 3.75 billion in 2010 to USD 9.46 billion in 2020. In 2020, China's imports from Slovakia were valued at USD 6.43 billion, up 7.8% year-on-year. The figure for exports was USD 3.03 billion, a yearon-year increase of 3.7%. The deficit was on the Chinese side totaling USD 3.4 billion (Ministry of Commerce of China, 2020). Slovakia had become China's fourth largest trading partner among CEECs, right after Poland, Czechia and Hungary. Slovakia's major exports included cars, auto parts, machinery and electronics. Its imports from China ranged from machinery, electromechanical products, nuclear reactors, optical instruments and photographic equipment, and footwear. Despite the fact that Slovakia attracted the least Chinese investments compared to other Visegrad Group member states, Chinese investments were expanding into more fields and taking more diversified forms in Slovakia. Cooperation between the two countries made headway in telecommunications, R&D, machinery, automobiles, agriculture and new energy. To date, China-Europe Railway Express has three direct or transit routes, giving the two-way trade a further boost.
Nevertheless, lack of mutual understanding poses a challenge to sustainability of some economic and trade cooperation projects. Slovakia's new administration formed after February 2020 adopted a foreign policy increasingly leaning towards the EU and the U.S. In January 2021, Slovak Parliament adopted a new security strategy featuring heavy use of narratives created by the EU and NATO. China was portrayed as both an important player and partner in addressing global challenges, as well as an economic and technological competitor and systemic rival of the EU (National Council of the Slovak Republic, 2021). In December 2021, a Slovakian delegation including the Deputy Minister of Economy visited Chinese Taiwan, which clearly violated the one-China principle and seriously damaged the political mutual trust between China and Slovakia.

Conclusion
The development of relations between China and Czechoslovakia and between China and the successor states is under the dual influence of internal politics and international landscape. From 1949 to 1960, China and Czechoslovakia had forged a close bond. But ups and downs in political engagement and economic cooperation were seen between 1960 and 1989. After the radical political changes in Czechoslovakia in 1989, the Chinese government rose above the differences in social systems, ideologies and values, and followed policies that facilitated friendship between the two countries. After the dissolution of Czech and Slovak Federative Republic (CSFR) on December 31, 1992, China followed the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence to promote friendship and cooperation with the two successor states. From 1993 to 2020, ideological differences had led the two countries to take different China policies. As a result, China-Czechia relations experienced more twists and turns than China-Slovakia relations. The more recent identities of the two countries are member states of the EU and NATO. Therefore, their attitudes towards China reflect obvious influences from the EU and the U.S. To address challenges facing the diplomatic relations, the three countries should rise above ideological lines, respect each other's core interests and major concerns, and reduce external distractions, so as to embark on the journey towards sound and smooth development.