Abstract
Based on a time-lag model, this study tested for changes in young children’s (1–6 years) home access and use of digital media in the 2012–2018 period as well as in their parents’ views on such media. What it found was that in only a few years the digital devices available to children have become more mobile (tablets and smartphones), more accessible, and more numerous in these children’s bedrooms, especially in single-parent households. Also, on average children have strongly increased their daily media use—up to 102 minutes. This is especially true for both younger children (3 years or less, plus 30 minutes) and children in middle to highly educated households (plus 25 minutes). Our findings support the complementary media adoption theory more than the displacement theory. Over the years parents have tended more and more to use digital media as ‘babysitters’, while they also found it increasingly difficult to stop their children from using such media, which may have major implications for parenting support activities.
Acknowledgments
The author is grateful for having been granted permission to use data from the Dutch Netwerk Mediawijsheid platform.
References
AAP Council (2016). Media and young minds. Pediatrics, 138(5). Retrieved August 27, 2020 from https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-259110.1542/peds.2016-2591Search in Google Scholar
Atkin, D. J., Hunt, D. S., & Lin, C. A. (2015). Diffusion theory in the new media environment: Toward an integrated technology adoption model. Mass Communication & Society, 18(5), 623–650.10.4324/9781315164441-13Search in Google Scholar
Bozzola, E., Spina, G., Ruggiero, M., Memo, L., Agostiniani, R., Bozzola, M., …, & Villani, A. (2018). Media devices in pre-school children: The recommendations of the Italian pediatric society. Italian Journal of Pediatrics, 44, 69. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13052-018-0508-710.1186/s13052-018-0508-7Search in Google Scholar
Byrne, D., Dunn, W., & Pinto, E. (2016). Prices and depreciation in the market for tablet computers. FEDS Notes. Washington: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (December 5). https://doi.org/10.17016/2380-7172.188510.17016/2380-7172.1885Search in Google Scholar
CBS (2014). Bevolking; hoogst behaald onderwijsniveau; geslacht, leeftijd en herkomst [Population; highest attained level of education; gender, age, and country of birth]. Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek [Statistics Netherlands].Search in Google Scholar
CBS (2019). Bijna 1 op de 6 kinderen woont in een eenouderhuishouden [Almost 1 in 6 children grow up in a single-parent family]. Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek [Statistics Netherlands].Search in Google Scholar
Chen, W., Teo, H. M., & Nguyen, D. (2019). Singapore parents’ use of digital devices with young children: Motivations and uses. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 28, 239–250.10.1007/s40299-019-00432-wSearch in Google Scholar
Cingel, D., & Krcmar, M. (2013). Predicting media use in very young children: The role of demographics and parent attitudes. Communication Studies, 64(4), 374–394.10.1080/10510974.2013.770408Search in Google Scholar
Danielson, K., Wong, K., & Neuman, S. (2019). Vocabulary in educational media for preschoolers: A content analysis of word selection and screen-based pedagogical support. Journal of Child and Media, 13(3), 345–362.10.1080/17482798.2019.1585892Search in Google Scholar
DeGusta, M. (2012). Are smartphones spreading faster than any technology in human history? MIT Technology Review. Retrieved August 27, 2020 from https://www.technologyreview.com/s/427787/are-smart-phones-spreading-faster-than-any-technology-in-human-history/.Search in Google Scholar
Dias, P. (2016). Motivations for multi-screening: An exploratory study on motivations and gratifications. European Journal of Communication, 31, 678–693.10.1177/0267323116674111Search in Google Scholar
Dong, C., & Mertala, P. (2019). It is a tool, but not a ‘must’: Early childhood preservice teachers’ perceptions of ICT and its affordances. Early Years. https://doi.org/10.1080/09575146.2019.162729310.1080/09575146.2019.1627293Search in Google Scholar
Dutta-Bergman, M. J. (2004). Complementarity in consumption of news types across traditional and digital media. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 48, 41–60.10.1207/s15506878jobem4801_3Search in Google Scholar
Erdogan, N., Johnson, J., Dong, P., & Qiu, Z. (2019). Do parents prefer digital play? Examination of parental preferences and beliefs in four nations. Early Childhood Education Journal, 47, 131–142.10.1007/s10643-018-0901-2Search in Google Scholar
Gentile, D., Nathanson, A., Rasmussen, E., Reimer, R., & Walsh, D. (2012). Do you see what I see? Parent and child reports of parental monitoring of media. Family Relations, 61, 470–487. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2012.00709.x10.1111/j.1741-3729.2012.00709.xSearch in Google Scholar
Haddon, L. (2017). Domestication and the media. In P. Rössler (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of Media Effects. London: John Wiley & Sons.10.1002/9781118783764.wbieme0115Search in Google Scholar
Haddon, L. (2018). Domestication and social constraints on ICT use: Children’s engagement with smartphones. In J. Vincent, & L. Haddon (Eds.), Smartphone Cultures (pp. 71–82). London: Routledge.10.4324/9781315307077-6Search in Google Scholar
Haines, J., O’Brien, A., McDonald, J., Goldman, R., Evans-Schmidt, M., Price, S., King, S., Sherry, B., & Taveras, E. M. (2013). Television viewing and televisions in bedrooms: Perceptions of racial/ethnic minority parents of young children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22, 749–756. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-012-9629-610.1007/s10826-012-9629-6Search in Google Scholar
Huber, B., Highfield, K., & Kaufman, J. (2018). Detailing the digital experience: Parent reports of children’s media use in the home learning environment. British Journal of Educational Technology, 49(5), 821–833.10.1111/bjet.12667Search in Google Scholar
Jordan, A. (2019). The role of media in childhood obesity. In J. Bagchi (Ed.), Global perspectives on childhood obesity: Current status, consequences and prevention (pp. 421–428). Cambridge, MA: Academic Press.10.1016/B978-0-12-812840-4.00033-5Search in Google Scholar
Kabali, H., Irigoyen, M., Nunez-Davis, R., Budacki, J., Mohanty, S., Leister, K., & Bonner, R. (2015). Exposure and use of mobile media devices by young children. Pediatrics, 136(6), 1044–1050.10.1542/peds.2015-2151Search in Google Scholar
Kline, R. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modelling (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.Search in Google Scholar
Lin, C. A. (2003). An interactive communication technology adoption model. Communication Theory, 13, 345–365.10.1111/j.1468-2885.2003.tb00296.xSearch in Google Scholar
Livingstone, S., Mascheroni, G., Dreier, M., Chaudron, S., & Lagae, K. (2015). How parents of young children manage digital devices at home: The role of income, education and parental style. London: EU Kids Online.Search in Google Scholar
Lovato, S., & Waxman, S. (2016). Young children learning from touch screens: Taking a wider view. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1078.10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01078Search in Google Scholar
McClure, E., Vaala, S., & Spiewak Toub, T. (2017). Discovering kids’ apps: Do family strategies vary by income? New York: The Joan Ganz Cooney Center at Sesame Workshop.Search in Google Scholar
McReynolds, E., Hubbard, S., Lau, T., Saraf, A., Cakmak, M., & Roesner, F. (2017). Toys that listen: A study of parents, children, and internet-connected toys. In Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, May 2017, Denver, CO (pp. 5197–5207). New York, USA: Association for Computing Machinery.10.1145/3025453.3025735Search in Google Scholar
Michael Cohen Group & U.S. Department of Education (2011). Young children, apps and iPad. New York: Michael Cohen Group. Retrieved August 27, 2020 from http://mcgrc.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/ipad-study-cover-page-report-mcg-info_new-online.pdf.Search in Google Scholar
Nathanson, A., & Beyens, I. (2018). The relation between use of mobile electronic devices and bedtime resistance, sleep duration, and daytime sleepiness among preschoolers. Behavioral Sleep Medicine, 16(2), 202–219.10.1080/15402002.2016.1188389Search in Google Scholar
Nevski, E., & Siibak, A. (2016). The role of parents and parental mediation on 0–3-year olds’ digital play with smart devices: Estonian parents’ attitudes and practices. Early Years, 36(3), 227–241.10.4324/9780429444418-2Search in Google Scholar
Newell, J., Genschel, U., & Zhang, N. (2014). Media discontinuance: Modeling the diffusion “s” curve to declines in media use. Journal of Media Business Studies, 11, 27–50.10.1080/16522354.2014.11073587Search in Google Scholar
Nikken, P. (2018). Parents’ instrumental use of media in childrearing: Relationships with confidence in parenting, and health and conduct problems in children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(2), 531–546. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1281-310.1007/s10826-018-1281-3Search in Google Scholar
Nikken, P., & Schols, M. (2015). How and why parents guide the media use of young children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(11), 3423–3435. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0144-410.1007/s10826-015-0144-4Search in Google Scholar
Ofcom (2017). Children and parents: Media use and attitudes report. London, UK: Ofcom.Search in Google Scholar
Oliemat, E., Ihmeideh, F., & Alkhawaldeh, M. (2018). The use of touch-screen tablets in early childhood: Children’s knowledge, skills, and attitudes towards tablet technology. Children and Youth Services Review, 88, 591–597.10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.03.028Search in Google Scholar
Pew Research (2019). Mobile fact sheet. Retrieved August 27, 2020 from https://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheet/mobile/.Search in Google Scholar
Putnam, R. D. (1995). Tuning in, tuning out: The strange disappearance of social capital in America. PS: Political Science & Politics, 28, 664–683.10.1017/S1049096500058856Search in Google Scholar
Rideout, V. (2017). The Common Sense Census: Media use by kids age zero to eight. San Francisco, CA: Common Sense Media.Search in Google Scholar
Rideout, V., & Katz, V. (2016). Opportunity for all? Technology and learning in lower-income families. A report of the Families and Media Project. New York: The Joan Ganz Cooney Center at Sesame Workshop.Search in Google Scholar
Roeters, A. & Bucx, F. (2018). Kijk op kinderopvang: Hoe ouders denken over de betaalbaarheid, toegankelijkheid en kwaliteit van kinderopvang. [A view on childcare: How parents think about affordability, accessibility, and quality regarding childcare]. Den Haag, NL: Sociaal en Cultureel Plabureau.Search in Google Scholar
Rogers, E. (2003). Diffusion of innovations. New York: The Free Press.10.4324/9780203710753-35Search in Google Scholar
Sawilowsky, S. S. (2009). New effect size rules of thumb. Journal of Modern Applied Statistical Methods, 8(2), 467–474.10.22237/jmasm/1257035100Search in Google Scholar
Silva, R. (2020). The case of the disappearing DVD-recorder. Lifewire. Retrieved August 27, 2020 from https://www.lifewire.com/disappearing-dvd-recorder-1846591.Search in Google Scholar
Twenge, Martin, & Spitzberg (2019). Trends in U.S. adolescents’ media use, 1976–2016: The rise of digital media, the decline of TV, and the (near) demise of print. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 8(4), 329–345.10.1037/ppm0000203Search in Google Scholar
Vandewater, E., Rideout, V., Wartella, E., Huang, X., Lee, J., & Shim, M. (2007). Digital childhood: Electronic media and technology use among infants, toddlers, and preschoolers. Pediatrics, 119, e1006-e1015, https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-180410.1542/peds.2006-1804Search in Google Scholar
WHO (2019). WHO guidelines on physical activity, sedentary behaviour and sleep for children under 5 years of age. Geneva, CH: World Health Organization.Search in Google Scholar
Tables
Percentage of homes with different types of media devices from 2012–2018.
2012 | 2015 | 2018 | F(2,2752)a | Cohen’s d | |
(smart) TV | 98 (14) | 96 (21) | 97 (18) | 0.21ns | .06b |
DVD/Blue-Ray | 85 (35) | 77 (42) | 72 (45) | 8.95*** | .32 |
Game consoles | 80 (40) | 70 (46) | 64 (48) | 4.95** | .36 |
Computers/laptops | 100 (05) | 99 (09) | 95 (21) | 18.89*** | .33 |
Smartphones | 72 (45) | 91 (29) | 98 (12) | 43.44*** | .79 |
Tablets | 34 (47) | 83 (38) | 89 (32) | 131.84*** | 1.37 |
NB: aDifferences in prevalence of devices corrected for educational level, marital status, and child’s age per year; bEffect sizes for differences between 2012 and 2018; ** p < .010, *** p < .001.
Percentage of homes with different types of media devices in the child’s bedroom from 2012–2018.
2012 | 2015 | 2018 | F(2,2752)a | Cohen’s d | |
(smart) TV | 9 (28) | 12 (32) | 13 (33) | 7.41** | .26b |
DVD/Blue-Ray | 5 (21) | 5 (23) | 5 (21) | 0.61ns | .05 |
Game consoles | 8 (27) | 7 (25) | 6 (25) | 1.85ns | .15 |
Computers/laptops | 3 (03) | 8 (08) | 5 (05) | 6.24** | .97 |
Smartphones | 0 (05) | 4 (20) | 6 (24) | 14.20*** | .40 |
Tablets | 0 (07) | 8 (28) | 11 (32) | 29.80*** | .60 |
Print media | 85 (36) | 75 (43) | 78 (41) | 12.16*** | .18 |
NB: aDifferences in prevalence of devices corrected for educational level, marital status, and child’s age per year; bEffect sizes for differences between 2012 and 2018; ** p < .010, *** p < .001.
Mean number of minutes spent with different types of media devices from 2012–2018.
2012 | 2015 | 2018 | F(2,2752)a | Cohen’s d | |
TV sets | 43 (37) | 44 (47) | 46 (52) | 3.55ns | .07b |
DVD/Blue-ray | 15 (21) | 10 (22) | 9 (22) | 8.30*** | .28 |
Game consoles | 13 (22) | 8 (23) | 7 (17) | 4.57** | .36 |
Computers/laptops | 10 (17) | 13 (30) | 6 (22) | 13.14** | .20 |
Smartphones | 2 (5) | 5 (14) | 9 (23) | 26.15*** | .42 |
Tablets | 3 (9) | 21 (41) | 26 (38) | 50.53*** | .83 |
Screen media total | 86 (69) | 101 (103) | 102 (103) | 5.53** | .18 |
Print media | 25 (22) | 26 (30) | 31 (34) | 4.78*** | .21 |
NB: aDifferences in prevalence of devices corrected for educational level, marital status, and child’s age per year; bEffect sizes for differences between 2012 and 2018; ** p < .010, *** p < .001.
Parents’ views on their child with respect to media use from 2012–2018.
2012 | 2015 | 2018 | F(2,2752)a | Cohen’s d | |
Child is proficient | 2.53b (.93) | 2.87 (1.02) | 2.91 (.95) | 15.63*** | .40c |
Media are educational | 3.62 (.60) | 3.38 (.76) | 3.57 (.72) | 17.63*** | .08 |
Media handy babysitter | 2.99 (.80) | 3.08 (.86) | 3.29 (.88) | 13.19** | .36 |
Media are unsuitable | 3.33 (.58) | 3.25 (.66) | 3.20 (.58) | 3.10ns | .22 |
Hard to stop the child | 2.68 (1.01) | 2.97 (1.06) | 3.17 (1.16) | 14.22*** | .45 |
NB: aDifferences in views corrected for educational level, marital status, and child’s age per year; bMean scores varying from 1 (=not true) to 5 (=true); cEffect sizes for differences between 2012 and 2018; ** p < .010, *** p < .001.
Mean number of minutes spent on different types of devices by 1- to 6-year-old children from 2012–2018.
NB: For clarity’s sake, we combined time spent on TV and DVD’s, on the one hand, and smartphones and tablets, on the other.
© 2021 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
