Abstract
This paper investigates the phenomenon of ‘classificatory verbs’, i.e. a set of motion and positional verbs that show stem alternations depending on the semantic features of one of their arguments in Tłı̨chǫ Yatıì (Dogrib), based on field notes and documentary sources of the language. The paper shows that Tłı̨chǫ classificatory verbal categories belong to four semantic subclasses which have inconsistent stem inventories caused by the presence or absence of some semantic features. Stem inventories of locative verb systems vary depending on the scalar [effort] feature, and those of motion verbs correlate with the scalar [agentive] feature. The paper explains why other semantically related verbs do not show stem alternations and proposes contrastive hierarchies to represent variations in stem inventories intra- and cross-linguistically assuming that the selection of a stem for a particular semantic category follows a series of binary choices that characterize the opposition’s active in the language.
Acknowledgment
I would like to thank two anonymous reviewers for very thoughtful comments and suggestions, which led to substantial improvements in this paper. In various stages of the paper’s development, I also benefited greatly from discussions with Nicholas Welch whose insightful comments and constructive feedback helped me clarify a number of theoretical and empirical issues. All errors remain mine.
Glossing abbreviations
- 1
-
first person
- 2
-
second person
- 3
-
third person
- ar
-
areal
- clf
-
classifier
- da
-
disjoint anaphor
- du
-
dual
- fut
-
future
- iter
-
iterative
- ipfv
-
imperfective
- neg
-
negation
- obj
-
object
- opt
-
optative
- pfv
-
perfective
- pns
-
possessed noun suffix
- pl
-
plural
- poss
-
possessive
- refl
-
reflexive
- recp
-
reciprocal
- sbj
-
subject
- sg
-
singular
- thm
-
thematic prefix
References
Ackroyd, Lynda. 1982. Dogrib grammar. Toronto: University of Toronto Unpublished manuscript.Search in Google Scholar
Adani, Flavia, Heather K. J. van der Lely, Matteo Forgiarini & Maria Teresa Guasti. 2010. Grammatical feature dissimilarities make relative clauses easier: A comprehension study with Italian children. Lingua 120(9). 2148–2166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2010.03.018.Search in Google Scholar
Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. 2000. Classifiers: A typology of noun categorization devices. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Al-Bataineh, Hussein. 2020. The nominality of Tłı̨chǫ classificatory verb stems and the simplicity of Dene verbal morphology. Unpublished manuscript. https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/mu5ty.Search in Google Scholar
Al-Bataineh, Hussein & Saleem Abdelhady. 2019. Cree-English intrasentential code-switching: Testing the morphosyntactic constraints of the matrix language frame model. Open Linguistics 5(1). 706–728. https://doi.org/10.1515/opli-2019-0039.Search in Google Scholar
Allan, Keith. 1977. Classifiers. Language 53(2). 285–311. https://doi.org/10.2307/413103.Search in Google Scholar
Axelrod, Melissa. 2000. The semantics of classification in Koyukon Athabaskan. In Theodore Fernald & Platero Paul (eds.), The Athabaskan languages: Perspectives on a native American language family, 9–27. New York: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Baker, Mark C. 2003. Lexical categories: Verbs, nouns and adjectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511615047Search in Google Scholar
Basso, Keith H. 1968. The Western Apache classificatory verb system: A formal analysis. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 24(3). 252–266. https://doi.org/10.1086/soutjanth.24.3.3629347.Search in Google Scholar
Blankenship, Barbara. 1997. Classificatory verbs in Cherokee. Anthropological Linguistics 39(1). 92–110. https://www.jstor.org/stable/30028976.Search in Google Scholar
Bloom, Paul. 1994. Semantic competence as an explanation for some transitions in language development. In Y. Levy (ed.), Other children, other languages: Theoretical issues in language acquisition, 41–75. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Search in Google Scholar
Bortolin, Leah. 1998. Aspect and the Chipewyan verb. Calgary: University of Calgary MA thesis.Search in Google Scholar
Carminati, Maria Nella. 2005. Processing reflexes of the Feature Hierarchy (Person > Number > Gender) and implications for linguistic theory. Lingua 115(3). 259–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2003.10.006.Search in Google Scholar
Carter, Robin M. 1976. Chipewyan classificatory verbs. International Journal of American Linguistics 42(1). 24–30. https://doi.org/10.1086/465383.Search in Google Scholar
Cook, Eung-Do. 1984. A Sarcee grammar. Vancouver: UBC Press.Search in Google Scholar
Cowper, Elizabeth & Daniel Currie Hall. 2019. Scope variation in contrastive hierarchies of morphosyntactic features. In David Lightfoot & Jon Havenhill (eds.), Variable properties in language: Their nature and acquisition, 27–41. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.10.2307/j.ctvfxv99p.7Search in Google Scholar
Croft, William. 1994. Semantic universals in classifier systems. Word 45(2). 145–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/00437956.1994.11435922.Search in Google Scholar
Davidson, William, L. Elford & Harry Hoijer. 1963. Athapaskan classificatory verbs. In Harry Hoijer (ed.), Studies in the Athapaskan languages (University of California Publications in Linguistics 29), 30–41. Berkeley: University of California Press.Search in Google Scholar
de Reuse, Willem Joseph. 2006. A practical grammar of the San Carlos Apache language. Berlin: LINCOM Europa.Search in Google Scholar
De Vincenzi, Marica & Elisa Di Domenico. 1999. A distinction among phi-features: The role of gender and number in the retrieval of pronoun antecedents. Rivista di Linguistica 11(1). 49–77.Search in Google Scholar
Dickinson, David K. 1988. Learning names for materials: Factors constraining and limiting hypotheses about word meaning. Cognitive Development 3(1). 15–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/0885-2014(88)90028-7.Search in Google Scholar
Dogrib Translation Committee. 2003. Nǫ̀htsı ̨nıh̨ tł’è: Zezı̀ wegǫ̀hłı ̨tł’axǫǫ̀ [Dogrib new testament]. Toronto: Canadian Bible Society.Search in Google Scholar
Dresher, B. Elan. 2009. The contrastive hierarchy in phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511642005Search in Google Scholar
Enrico, John. 1987. The dimensions of language. International Journal of American Linguistics 53(1). 61–64. https://doi.org/10.1086/466043.Search in Google Scholar
Fernald, Theodore B. 2002. Restriction, saturation, and classificatory verbs. In Proceedings of the 2002 Athabaskan Languages Conference, 37–51. Fairbanks, AK: ANLC Working Papers.Search in Google Scholar
Fortescue, Michael. 2006. The origins of the Wakashan classificatory verbs of location and handling. Anthropological Linguistics 48(3). 266–287. http://www.jstor.com/stable/25132390.Search in Google Scholar
Friedrich, Paul. 1970. Shape in grammar. Language 46(2). 379–407. https://doi.org/10.2307/412285.Search in Google Scholar
Gruber, Jeffrey. 1965. Studies in lexical relations. Cambridge, MA: MIT dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
Henry, David & Kay Henry. 1965. Koyukon classificatory verbs. Anthropological Linguistics 7(4). 110–116. https://www.jstor.org/stable/30022546.Search in Google Scholar
Hoijer, Harry. 1945. Classificatory verb stems in the Apachean languages. International Journal of American Linguistics 11(1). 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1086/463846.Search in Google Scholar
Hucklebridge, Sherry. 2016. Internally-headed relative clauses in Tłı̨chǫ Yatıì. Toronto: University of Toronto MA thesis.Search in Google Scholar
Jackendoff, Ray S. 1972. Semantic interpretation in generative grammar. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.Search in Google Scholar
Jaker, Alessandro. 2012. Prosodic reversal in Dogrib (Weledeh dialect). Stanford, CA: Stanford University MA thesis.Search in Google Scholar
Jaker, Alessandro, Fred Sangris & Mary Sundberg (eds.). 2013. Weledeh language verb dictionary. Yellowknife, NT: Goyatiko Language Society.Search in Google Scholar
Kari, James. 1989. Affix positions and zones in the Athapaskan verb complex: Ahtna and Navajo. International Journal of American Linguistics 55(4). 424–454. https://doi.org/10.1086/466129.Search in Google Scholar
Kilian-Hatz, Christa. 2002. The grammatical evolution of posture verb in Kxoe. In John Newman (ed.), The linguistics of sitting, standing and lying, 315–332. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.10.1075/tsl.51.13kilSearch in Google Scholar
Krauss, Michael E. 1968. Noun-classification systems in Athapaskan, Eyak, Tlingit and Haida verbs. International Journal of American Linguistics 34(3). 194–203. https://doi.org/10.1086/465014.Search in Google Scholar
Kuteva, Tania. 1999. On ‘sit’/‘stand’/‘lie’ auxiliation. Linguistics 37(2). 191–213. https://doi.org/10.1515/ling.37.2.191.Search in Google Scholar
Landar, Herbert. 1965. Class co-occurrence in Navaho gender. International Journal of American Linguistics 31(4). 326–331. https://doi.org/10.1086/464863.Search in Google Scholar
Landar, Herbert. 1967. Ten’a classificatory verbs. International Journal of American Linguistics 33(4). 263–268. https://doi.org/10.1086/464976.Search in Google Scholar
Leer, Jeffry A. 1991. The schetic categories of the Tlingit verb. Chicago: University of Chicago Dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
Lichtenberk, Frantisek. 2002. Posture verbs in Oceanic. In John Newman (ed.), The linguistics of sitting, standing and lying, 269–314. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.10.1075/tsl.51.12licSearch in Google Scholar
McDonough, Joyce. 1996. Epenthesis in Navajo. In Robert W. Young (ed.), Athabaskan language studies: Essays in honor of Robert W. Young, 235–257. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.Search in Google Scholar
Newman, John. 2002. The linguistics of sitting, standing and lying. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.10.1075/tsl.51Search in Google Scholar
Poser, William. 2005. Noun classification in Carrier. Anthropological Linguistics 47(2). 143–168. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25132325.Search in Google Scholar
Prasada, Sandeep. 1993. Learning names for solid substances: Quantifying solid entities in terms of portions. Cognitive Development 8(1). 83–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/0885-2014(93)90006-Q.Search in Google Scholar
Rice, Sally. 1998. Giving and taking in Chipewyan: The semantics of THING-marking classificatory verbs. In John Newman (ed.), Linguistics of giving, 97–134. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.10.1075/tsl.36.05ricSearch in Google Scholar
Rice, Keren. 2000. Another look at the Athapaskan y-/b- pronouns: Evidence from Slave for b- as a case marker. In Papers in honor of Ken Hale (MIT Working Papers on Endangered and Less Familiar Languages 1), 190–128. Cambridge, MA: MITWPL.Search in Google Scholar
Rice, Sally. 2002. Posture and existence predicates in Dene Suline (Chipewyan). In John Newman (ed.), The linguistics of sitting, standing, and lying, 61–78. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.10.1075/tsl.51.05ricSearch in Google Scholar
Rice, Sally. 2009. Athapaskan eating and drinking verbs and constructions. In John Newman (ed.), The linguistics of eating and drinking, 109–152. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.10.1075/tsl.84.07ricSearch in Google Scholar
Rice, Keren & Leslie Saxon. 2008. Comparative Athapaskan syntax: Arguments and projections. In Giglielmo Cinque & Richard S. Kayne (eds.), The Oxford handbook of comparative syntax, 698–774. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195136517.013.0016Search in Google Scholar
Rushforth, Scott. 1991. Uses of Bearlake and Mescalero (Athapaskan) classificatory verbs. International Journal of American Linguistics 57(2). 251–266. https://doi.org/10.1086/ijal.57.2.3519768.Search in Google Scholar
Sapir, Edward. 1915. The Na‐Dene languages, a preliminary report. American Anthropologist 17(3). 534–558. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1915.17.3.02a00080.Search in Google Scholar
Smith, Linda B. 1999. Children’s noun learning: How general learning processes make specialized learning mechanisms. In Brian MacWhinney (ed.), The emergence of language, 277–303. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Search in Google Scholar
Soja, Nancy N. 1992. Inferences about the meanings of nouns: The relationship between perception and syntax. Cognitive Development 7(1). 29–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/0885-2014(92)90003-A.Search in Google Scholar
Soja, Nancy N., Susan Carey & Elizabeth S. Spelke. 1991. Ontological categories guide young children’s inductions of word meaning: Object terms and substance terms. Cognition 38(2). 179–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(91)90051-5.Search in Google Scholar
Statistics Canada. 2017. Language highlight tables, 2016 Census: Aboriginal mother tongue, Aboriginal language spoken most often at home and Other Aboriginal language(s) spoken regularly at home for the population excluding institutional residents of Canada, provinces and territories, 2016 Census – 100% Data. https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/lang/Table.cfm?Lang=E&T=41&Geo=01 (accessed 14 February 2019).Search in Google Scholar
Subrahmanyam, Kaveri, Barbara Landau & Rochel Gelman. 1999. Shape, material, and syntax: Interacting forces in children’s learning in novel words for objects and substances. Language & Cognitive Processes 14(3). 249–281. https://doi.org/10.1080/016909699386301.Search in Google Scholar
Tłıc̨hǫ Community Services Agency. 2007. Tłı̨chǫ Yatıì multimedia dictionary. http://tlicho.ling.uvic.ca/default.aspx (accessed 23 May 2019).Search in Google Scholar
Welch, Nicholas. 2015. Deducing clause structure from the right periphery in Tłı̨chǫ Yatıì. International Journal of American Linguistics 81(2). 261–291. https://doi.org/10.1086/680311.Search in Google Scholar
Welch, Nicholas. 2016a. Copulas are not just inflection: Evidence from Tłįchǫ Yatiì. The Canadian Journal of Linguistics/La revue canadienne de linguistique 61(1). 98–106. https://doi.org/10.1353/cjl.2016.0006.Search in Google Scholar
Welch, Nicholas. 2016b. Propping up predicates: Adjectival predication in Tłı̨chǫ Yatıì. Glossa 1(1). 2. https://doi.org/10.5334/gjgl.7.Search in Google Scholar
Welmers, William E. & Beatrice F. Welmers. 1969. Noun modifiers in Igbo. International Journal of American Linguistics 35(4). 315–322. https://doi.org/10.1086/465076.Search in Google Scholar
Wilhelm, Andrea. 2003. The grammatization of telicity and durativity in Dene Suline (Chipewyan) and German. Alberta: University of Calgary Dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
Wilhelm, Andrea. 2008. Bare nouns and number in Dëne Sųłiné. Natural Language Semantics 16(1). 39–68. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11050-007-9024-9.Search in Google Scholar
Willie, MaryAnn. 2000. Individual and stage level predication and the Navajo classificatory verbs. In Andrew Carnie, Eloise Jelinek & Mary Willie (eds.), Papers in honor of Ken Hale (MIT Working Papers on Endangered and Less Familiar Languages 1), 39–50. Cambridge, MA: MITWPL.Search in Google Scholar
Witherspoon, Gary J. 1971. Navajo categories of objects at rest. American Anthropologist 73(1). 110–127. https://www.jstor.org/stable/671816.10.1525/aa.1971.73.1.02a00090Search in Google Scholar
© 2020 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston