Landscape dynamics at borderlands: analysing land use changes from Southern Slovenia

2.1 Study region and case studies

Bela krajina (White Carniola) is located in the south-eastern part of Slovenia (Figure 1), along the Slovenian–Croatian border, covering 595 km². The region is characterized by a weak economy, unfavourable demographic structure (ageing population) and well-preserved nature. According to Plut [15,16], the uneven regional development of Bela krajina is a reflection of the relatively scarce natural resources, karst terrain, remoteness regarding major roads, underdeveloped infrastructure, belated industrialization, dispersed settlements, and low education levels.

Figure 1

Geographical location of the study region (Bela krajina), its three municipalities (Črnomelj, Metlika and Semič), and the selected case studies (settlements of Adlešiči and Bojanci).

Bela krajina was selected as the study region because it represents a geographically marginal Slovenian karst landscape and of its cultural diversity. Karst landscapes in Slovenia cover over 44% of the countryʼs area and are characterized by stony surfaces with dolines, collapse dolines, solution valleys, poljes, corrosion plains, and dry and blind valleys [17]. Karst landscapes are recognizable important features at a national level, cultural and symbolic landscape identity, and natural characteristics with distinctive features limiting and directing human activities. As Bela krajina is located along part of the national border and mainly due to the border itself, immigration and emigration have been the permanent fixtures in the region [18; Figure 2]. The region has been settled by various ethnic groups that have contributed to its ethnic and cultural diversity.

Figure 2

Demographic fluctuation in Adlešiči and Bojanci settlements.

The arrival of the Ottoman Empire in Europe at the end of fourteenth century demographically influenced the settlements in Bela krajina [19]. Consequently, the Habsburg Monarchy began to organize defences, establish a military frontier, and settle a war-capable population. Uskoks, refugees from the Ottomans that fled from the conquered or even unconquered areas of the present-day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, began settling in Bela krajina to protect the Habsburg Monarchy from Ottomans invasions [19].

In the second half of the nineteenth century, the Ottoman threat ceased and the military frontier became obsolete.

Inhabitants of Bela krajina were, besides political changes, also affected by the agrarian reforms.

It is difficult to determine only one main factor for mass emigration from the region. But the most decisive factor was the poor economic situation in the last years of the nineteenth century. People from Bela krajina emigrated to the United States of America and to a lesser extent to Canada and Argentina. The first economic migrations across the Atlantic (ocean) were documented in 1847, and it was reported [18] that the major peak of emigration in Bela krajina was reached between 1912 and 1927. Paradoxically, the population emigrated vastly right after the construction of the railway, which enabled faster outmigration [20]. Until the Second World War, Bela krajina was partly abandoned. After 1945, the connection of Bela krajina with modern infrastructure and industrialization began. However, emigration continued, even after this time [21].

Spatial and temporal analyses were undertaken on two case studies. The two case studies were selected to represent the settlements of Adlešiči and Bojanci (Figure 1). The choice for these case studies was guided by the distinctive patterns of its landscapes (land use and appearance), as a result of their historically distinctive character.

Adlešiči is a settlement of Slovenian ethnicity and catholic religion. Before the First World War and during the interwar years, the inhabitants of Adlešiči were predominantly a peasant population who lived from agriculture, animal husbandry, and partly from viticulture. After 1955, many inhabitants of Adlešiči started working in Črnomelj (in food and concrete industries), and in Semič (in electrical industry) after 1970 [22].

Bojanci was selected as its inhabitants are different from other nearby Slovenian settlements, in the sense of mother language, national identity, and religion. The area around Bojanci was colonized by Uskok population in 1548 [23]. As a result, Bojanci presents a different ethnic composition of its inhabitants (Serbs, Slovenes, Croatians, and Yugoslavs; Table 1). With colonization by the Uskok population, deforestation took place in Bojanci. In return for military service, land was given to Uskoks as inherited property. They were also involved in animal husbandry, especially of sheep, and trade [24]. Uskoks brought with them a special breed of sheep (“pramenka”) and pig (“mangulica”), which grazes outdoors [26]. Compared with the inhabitants of Adlešiči, Uskoks had special rights and were not directly integrated into the feudal system [24]. Cooperativism was until the Second World War, still preserved in the settlement. Marriages happened only between community members. Regarding religion, most of the inhabitants preserved the Orthodox faith and they also preserved the heritage of their homeland as well as the costumes, despite centuries of outmigration and disconnection from their mother country [27].

Figure 2 shows the fluctuation of the population in the Adlešiči and Bojanci case studies from 1830 to 2015.

2.2 Data collection and processing

As stated by Cousins [28], land use maps corresponding to different time periods make it possible to observe the changes between land use categories and to analyse the land use history of a specific site. The analyses of landscape change are thus based on a variety of sources, including historical maps, cadastral maps, archival data, and data acquired in the field.

The basis of these analyses was the delineation of land use units, from four data sources: Franziscean Land Cadastre (1824), Revised Land Cadastre (1877), Agricultural Map (1987), and field mapping (2012). Historical maps utilized in this study were produced using different cartographical and land surveying techniques.

The Franziscean and the Revised Land Cadastres were acquired from the Archives of the Republic of Slovenia. The Agricultural Map was acquired from the Administrative Unit of Črnomelj. These historical maps were first scanned (except Franziscean Cadastral map sheets that were previously acquired in digital format), georeferenced, and converted to vector format to be further analysed. For estimating the accuracy of the historical maps, several control points were chosen from these maps, corresponding to the locations identified in digital orthophotos from 2009 acquired at the Surveying and Mapping Authority of the Republic of Slovenia (GURS), using ArcGIS 10. Data for the contemporary land use (2012) were acquired through field mapping; and at the end, field maps were digitized in ArcGIS. Each data set was handled in a separate layer in geographic information system (GIS).

Data on cultural reality (ethnicity and demographic data) were acquired from the literature and archives.

2.3 Assessment of land use dynamics

The land use analyses were carried out in two steps. The first step was to create land use maps that are thematically comparable [28]. In general, the various maps used in this study are comparable, but they are not identical because they have been created for different purposes and the mapping methodology used was also different; therefore, the land use categories vary among them. In the analysis, we included data from each of the available years (1824, 1877, 1987, and 2012). As the data from 1987 (agricultural map) did not have information for meadows and pastures individually, but only a class of grasslands (including meadows and pastures), we considered meadows and pastures as only one land use category (grasslands), and this also applies to the other three data sets (1824, 1877 and 2012). And so, we have used eight land use categories: cultivated field, garden, vineyard, grassland, shrubland, forest, inland water, and built-up. As raw data from 1877 do not provide information about shrublands, we assumed that there were no shrublands in this period.

The second step was to analyse the landscape changes (through land use changes) through time for both case studies. Land use maps pertaining to the four time periods were created in ArcGIS 10.1. In such a way it is possible to visualize changes between layers. The calculation of land use changes among land use categories was also done in ArcGIS 10.1.

3.1 Land use changes

Major changes over time can be noted in Adlešiči for the land use categories: cultivated fields, grasslands, and forests (Figure 3). Major changes over time can be noted in Bojanci for the land use categories: cultivated fields, grasslands, shrublands, and forests (Figure 4).

Figure 3

Land use categories over time for the Adlešiči case study.

Figure 4

Land use categories over time for the Bojanci case study.

Cultivated fields in Adlešiči showed a slight increase from 1824 to 1877 but a significant retraction from 1877 to 2012 (Figure 5; row 2 in Table 2). The areas occupied by gardens in Adlešiči experienced fluctuations for the time span studied (Figure 5; row 3 in Table 2). Vineyards in Adlešiči show an increase until 1877 and from then a retraction (Figure 5; row 4 in Table 2). Grasslands in Adlešiči show a slight increase in area until 1987, and after this period the area was reduced due to an increase in forests (Figure 5; row 5 in Table 2). Shrublands in Adlešiči do not occur in 1877, after this period they increased (Figure 5; row 6 in Table 1). The forest areas in Adlešiči slightly decreased from 1824 to 1877 but significantly expanded from 1877 to 2012 (Figure 5; row 7 in Table 2). Over all of the map series, inland waters in Adlešiči appear constant with only minor variations (Figure 5; row 8 in Table 2). Built-up areas in Adlešiči doubled in size from 1824 to 2012 (Figure 5; row 9 in Table 2).

Figure 5

Changes in proportion of land use categories over time for Adlešiči.

Cultivated fields in Bojanci showed a dramatic decrease from 1824 to 2012, although this change is more evident from 1877 to 1987 (Figure 6; row 2 in Table 3). The areas occupied by gardens experienced fluctuations for the time span studied (Figure 6; row 3 in Table 3), the same as in Adlešiči. In Bojanci, the area of vineyards is almost negligible; and as with gardens, this land use category also experienced slight fluctuations from 1824 to 2012 (Figure 6; row 4 in Table 3). In 1824, grasslands dominated in Bojanci, and this area significantly increased until 1877. After this period, the area was reduced due to the increase in forests (Figure 6; row 5 in Table 3). Shrublands in Bojanci occupied an extensive area in 1824; in 1877, this land use category did not occur; but from 1877 to 2012, it increased, although to a smaller proportion than the initial area (Figure 6; row 6 in Table 3). Even though forest area was already quite extensive in 1824, the afforested land significantly expanded over time (Figure 6; row 7 in Table 3). In Bojanci, inland waters were represented by a negligible area in 1824 and 1877, corresponding to water ponds; and after this period, these areas do not occur (Figure 6; row 8 in Table 3). Urban expansion occurred in Bojanci from 1824 to 1987, after this period the built-up areas show a small reduction (Figure 6; row 9 in Table 3).

Figure 6

Changes in proportion of land use categories over time for Bojanci.

3.2 Factors which influenced the landscape changes

In both case studies, the major landscape changes took place between 1877 and 1987. Since in Bela krajina the major peak in emigration was between 1912 and 1927, it was expected that the amount of land abandoned would increase as a result of outmigration. In this period, the amount of cultivated fields declined in both case studies (Figure 7). Gardens also decreased in both case studies between 1877 and 1987. The assessment of the relationship between abandonment of agricultural land (through changes in the surfaces occupied by cultivated fields) and population dynamics for the time span between 1824 and 2012 is shown in the Figure 7.

Figure 7

Changes in the surfaces of cultivated fields and demographic fluctuation between 1824 and 2012 for both case studies.

The changes in cultivated fields are closely related to the demographic changes in Bojanci (shown in brown, Figure 7). The slight increase in these areas between 1824 and 1877 was accompanied by an increase in the number of inhabitants in Bojanci for the same period. The pronounced decline in cultivated fields between 1877 and 1987 is parallel to a pronounced decline in population due to emigration, continuing to 2012. This connection between changes in cultivated fields and population dynamics is not seen in Adlešiči (shown in green, Figure 7). A slight expansion of cultivated fields from 1824 to 1877 is not followed by an increase in the number of inhabitants in Adlešiči. Actually, demographic fluctuation is not so obvious in this case study. Nevertheless, the surface here covered by cultivated fields also immensely diminished in the analysed time period. As the inhabitants of Adlešiči were predominantly a peasant population before the First World War; and after the year 1955, they started to work in industry, which led to a change in the professional structure of the population that could be the main cause of agriculture abandonment in the settlement, and not the outmigration as seen in the Bojanci case study.

In both case studies, from 1987 and 2012, forests and shrublands continued to increase, while grasslands and cultivated fields continued to decrease. In 2012, a slight expansion of gardens was observed, suggesting a recourse towards homestead food self-sufficiency.