Abstract
It is frequently observed that bamboo particle composites (BPCs) do not show higher mechanical performances than the corresponding wood particles composites (WPCs), although bulk bamboo is much stronger than wood in mechanical performances. Herein this phenomenon was demonstrated from the cell compositions in the applied bamboo particles. To address that, a simple method to physically separate bamboo fibers (BFs) and bamboo parenchyma cells (BPs) from a bamboo particle mixture was developed. Polypropylene (PP) composites with pure BFs, BPs, a mixture of BFs and BPs (BFs + BPs), wood particles (WPs) as fillers were prepared. The flexural and dynamic mechanical properties, water absorption, and thermal properties were determined. The BF/PP composites showed the best mechanical performances (MOR at 35 MPa, MOE at 2.4 GPa), followed by WP/PP, (BF + BP)/PP, and BP/PP. They also exhibited the lowest water absorption and thickness swelling. Little difference was found for the thermal decomposition properties. However, a lower activation energy of BF/PP compared with BP/PP implied an uneven dispersion of BFs and weaker interfacial interaction between BF and PP. The results suggest that the mechanical performances and water resistance of bamboo particle/polymer composites can be significantly improved through cell separation. However, interface modification should be applied if higher performances of BF/PP composites are required.
Funding source: National Science Foundation of China
Award Identifier / Grant number: 31770600
Funding source: Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities of China
Award Identifier / Grant number: SWU117060
Author contribution: All the authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this submitted manuscript and approved submission.
Research funding: This work was supported by National Science Foundation of China (31770600) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities of China (SWU117060).
Conflict of interest statement: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
References
Acha, B.A., Reboredo, M.M., and Marcovich, N.E. (2007). Creep and dynamic mechanical behavior of PP-jute composites: effect of the interfacial adhesion. Compos. Part A-Appl. Sci. Manuf. 38: 1507–1516, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2007.01.003.Search in Google Scholar
AlOqla, F.M. and Salit, M.S. (2017). Natural fiber composites. Mater. Select. Nat. Fiber Comp. 2.Search in Google Scholar
Ashori, A. and Nourbakhsh, A. (2010). Reinforced polypropylene composites: effects of chemical compositions and particle size. Bioresource Technol. 101: 2515–2519, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2009.11.022.Search in Google Scholar
Bledzki, A.K., Faruk, O., and Huque, M. (2002). Physico-mechanical studies of wood fiber reinforced composites. Polym. Plast. Technol. 41: 435–451, https://doi.org/10.1081/ppt-120004361.Search in Google Scholar
Boyd, R.H. (1985). Relaxation processes in crystalline polymers: molecular interpretation-a review. Polymer 26: 1123–1133, https://doi.org/10.1016/0032-3861(85)90240-x.Search in Google Scholar
Chattopadhyay, S.K., Khandal, R.K., Uppaluri, R., and Ghoshal, A.K. (2011). Bamboo fiber reinforced polypropylene composites and their mechanical, thermal, and morphological properties. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 119: 1619–1626, https://doi.org/10.1002/app.32826.Search in Google Scholar
Chen, X., Guo, Q., and Mi, Y. (1998). Bamboo fiber-reinforced polypropylene composites: a study of the mechanical properties. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 69: 1891–1899, https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-4628(19980906)69:10<1891::aid-app1>3.0.co;2-9.10.1002/(SICI)1097-4628(19980906)69:10<1891::AID-APP1>3.0.CO;2-9Search in Google Scholar
Deshpande, A.P., Bhaskar, R.M., and Lakshmana, R.C. (2000). Extraction of bamboo fibers and their use as reinforcement in polymeric composites. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 76: 83–92, https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-4628(20000404)76:1<83::aid-app11>3.0.co;2-l.10.1002/(SICI)1097-4628(20000404)76:1<83::AID-APP11>3.0.CO;2-LSearch in Google Scholar
Gregorova, A., Sedlarik, V., Pastorek, M., Jachandra, H., and Stelzer, F. (2011). Effect of compatibilizing agent on the properties of highly crystalline composites based on poly (lactic acid) and wood flour and/or mica. J. Polym. Environ 19: 372–381, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-011-0292-6.Search in Google Scholar
Heijboar, T. (1978). In molecular basis of transition and relaxations. In: Meier, D.J. (Ed.), Molecular basis of transitions and relaxations. New York: Gordon and Breach, p. 5.Search in Google Scholar
Hosseinaei, O., Wang, S., Enayati, A.A., and Rials, T.G. (2012). Effects of hemicellulose extraction on properties of wood flour and wood-plastic composites. Compos. Part A-Appl. Sci. Manuf. 43: 686–694, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2012.01.007.Search in Google Scholar
Ismail, H., Edyham, M.R., and Wirjosentono, B. (2002). Bamboo fibre filled natural rubber composites: the effects of filler loading and bonding agent. Polym. Test 21: 139–144, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0142-9418(01)00060-5.Search in Google Scholar
Jones, F.R. (1994). Handbook of polymer-fiber composites. London: Longman Scientific & Technical.Search in Google Scholar
Joseph, P.V., Joseph, K., Thomas, S., Pillai, C.K.S., Prasad, V.S., Groenicks, G., and Sarkissova, M. (2003). The thermal and crystallisation studies of short sisal fibre reinforced polypropylene composites. Compos. Part A-Appl. Sci. Manuf. 34: 253–266, https://doi.org/10.1016/s1359-835x(02)00185-9.Search in Google Scholar
Kim, H.S., Choi, S.W., Lee, B.H., Kim, S., Kim, H.J., and Cho, C.W. (2007). Thermal properties of bio flour-filled polypropylene bio-composites with different pozzolan contents. J. Therm. Anal. Calor. 89: 821–827, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-006-7941-3.Search in Google Scholar
Kim, H.S., Kim, S., Kim, H.J., and Yang, H. (2006). Thermal properties of bio-flour-filled polyolefin composites with different compatibilizing agent type and content. Thermochim. Acta. 451: 181–188, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tca.2006.09.013.Search in Google Scholar
Kim, Y.K. (2012). Natural fibre composites (NFCs) for construction and automotive industries. In: Kozłowski, R.M. (Ed.), Handbook of natural fibres. processing and applications, Vol. 2: Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles, pp. 254–279.10.1533/9780857095510.2.254Search in Google Scholar
Klyosov, A.A. (2007). Composition of wood-plastic composites: cellulose and lignocellulose. Wood-Plastic Composites: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 75–122.10.1002/9780470165935.ch3Search in Google Scholar
Lee, S.H., Ohkita, T., and Kitagawa, K. (2004). Eco-composite from poly (lactic acid) and bamboo fiber. Holzforschung 58: 529–536. https://doi.org/10.1515/hf.2004.080.Search in Google Scholar
Lee, S.Y., Chun, S.J., Doh, G.H., Kang, I.A., Lee, S., and Paik, K.H. (2009). Influence of chemical modification and filler loading on fundamental properties of bamboo fibers reinforced polypropylene composites. J. Compos. Mater. 43: 1639–1657, https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998309339352.Search in Google Scholar
Liu, H., Wu, Q., Han, G., Yao, F., Kojima, Y., and Suzuki, S. (2008). Compatibilizing and toughening bamboo flour-filled HDPE composites: mechanical properties and morphologies. Compos. Part A-Appl. Sci. Manuf. 39: 1891–1900, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2008.09.011.Search in Google Scholar
Liu, Z.J., Jiang, Z.H., Cai, Z.Y., Fei, B.H., Yu, Y., and Liu, X.E. (2012). Dynamic mechanical thermal analysis of Moso Bamboo (Phyllostachys heterocycla) at different moisture content. BioResources 7: 1548–1557, https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.7.2.1548-1557.Search in Google Scholar
Marcovich, N.E., Reboredo, M.M., and Aranguren, M.I. (2001). Modified wood flour as thermoset fillers: II. thermal degradation of wood flours and composites. Thermochim. Acta 372: 45–57, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0040-6031(01)00425-7.Search in Google Scholar
Mohanty, S., Verma, S.K., and Nayak, S.K. (2006). Dynamic mechanical and thermal properties of MAPE treated jute/HDPE composites. Compos. Sci. Technol. 66: 538–547, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2005.06.014.Search in Google Scholar
Najafi, S.K., Mostafazadeh-Marznaki, M., and Chaharmahali, M. (2010). Effect of thermo-mechanical degradation of polypropylene on hygroscopic characteristics of wood flour-polypropylene composites. J. Polym. Environ. 18: 720–726.10.1007/s10924-010-0220-1Search in Google Scholar
Okubo, K., Fujii, T., and Yamamoto, Y. (2004). Development of bamboo-based polymer composites and their mechanical properties. Compos. Part A-Appl. Sci. Manuf. 35: 377–383, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2003.09.017.Search in Google Scholar
Ou, R., Xie, Y., Wolcott, M.P., Sui, S., and Wang, Q. (2014). Morphology, mechanical properties, and dimensional stability of wood particle/high density polyethylene composites: effect of removal of wood cell wall composition. Mater. Design 58: 339–345, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2014.02.018.Search in Google Scholar
Panaitescu, D.M., Vuluga, Z., Ghiurea, M., Iorga, M., Nicolae, C., and Gabor, R. (2015). Influence of compatibilizing system on morphology, thermal and mechanical properties of high flow polypropylene reinforced with short hemp fibers. Compos. Part B-Eng. 69: 286–295, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2014.10.010.Search in Google Scholar
Rao, K.M.M., and Rao, K.M. (2007). Extraction and tensile properties of natural fibers: Vakka, date and bamboo. Compos. Struct. 77: 288–295, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2005.07.023.Search in Google Scholar
Saha, A.K., Das, S., Bhatta, D., and Mitra, B.C. (1999). Study of jute fiber reinforced polyester composites by dynamic mechanical analysis. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 71: 1505–1513, https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-4628(19990228)71:9<1505::aid-app15>3.0.co;2-1.10.1002/(SICI)1097-4628(19990228)71:9<1505::AID-APP15>3.0.CO;2-1Search in Google Scholar
Salmén, L. (1984). Viscoelastic properties of in situ lignin under water-saturated conditions. J. Mater. Sci. 19: 3090–3096. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01026988.Search in Google Scholar
Sobczak, L., Lang, R.W., and Haider, A. (2012). Polypropylene composites with natural fibers and wood-general mechanical property profiles. Compos. Sci. Technol. 72: 550–557, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2011.12.013.Search in Google Scholar
Soleimani, M., Tabil, L., Panigrahi, S., and Opoku, A. (2008). The effect of fiber pretreatment and compatibilizer on mechanical and physical properties of flax fiber-polypropylene composites. J. Polym. Environ. 16: 74–82, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-008-0102-y.Search in Google Scholar
Son, J., Gardner, D.J, O’Neill, S., and Metaxas, C. (2003). Understanding the viscoelastic properties of extruded polypropylene wood plastic composites. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 89: 1638–1644, https://doi.org/10.1002/app.12372.Search in Google Scholar
Sorieul, M., Dickson, A., Hill, S.J., and Pearson, H. (2016). Plant fibre: molecular structure and biomechanical properties, of a complex living material, influencing its deconstruction towards a biobased composite. Materials 9: 618, https://doi.org/10.3390/ma9080618.Search in Google Scholar
Stark, N.M. and Rowlands, R.E. (2007). Effects of wood fiber characteristics on mechanical properties of wood/polypropylene composites. Wood Fiber Sci. 35: 167–174.Search in Google Scholar
Thwe, M.M. and Liao, K. (2003). Environmental effects on bamboo-glass/polypropylene hybrid composites. J. Mater. Sci. 38: 363–376, https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1021130019435.10.1023/A:1021130019435Search in Google Scholar
Wang, H.K., Zhang, X.X., Jiang, Z.H., Li, W.J., and Yu, Y. (2015). A comparison study on the preparation of nanocellulose fibrils from fibers and parenchymal cells in bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens). Ind. Crop. Prod. 71: 80–88, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2015.03.086.Search in Google Scholar
Wei, L., Liang, S., and McDonald, A.G. (2015). Thermophysical properties and biodegradation behavior of green composites made from polyhydroxybutyrate and potato peel waste fermentation residue. Ind. Crop. Prod. 69: 91–103, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2015.02.011.Search in Google Scholar
Yang, H.S., Kiziltas, A., and Gardner, D.J. (2013). Thermal analysis and crystallinity study of cellulose nanofibril-filled polypropylene composites. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 113: 673–682, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-012-2770-z.Search in Google Scholar
Ye, X., Wang, H., Zheng, K., Wu, Z., Zhou, H., Tian, K., Su, Z., and Tian, X. (2016). The interface designing and reinforced features of wood fiber/polypropylene composites: wood fiber adopting nano-zinc-oxide-coating via ion assembly. Compos. Sci. Technol. 124: 1–9, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2015.12.016.Search in Google Scholar
Yemele, M.C.N., Koubaa, A., Cloutier, A., Soulounganga, P., and Wolcott, M. (2010). Effect of bark fiber content and size on the mechanical properties of bark/HDPE composites. Compos. Part A-Appl. Sci. Manuf. 41: 131–137, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2009.06.005.Search in Google Scholar
Yu, Y., Tian, G.L., Wang, H.K., Fei, B.H., and Wang, G. (2011). Mechanical characterization of single bamboo fibers with nanoindentation and microtensile technique. Holzforschung 65: 113–119, https://doi.org/10.1515/hf.2011.009.Search in Google Scholar
Yu, Y., Wang, H.K., Lu, F., Tian, G.L., and Lin, J.G. (2014). Bamboo fibers for composite applications: a mechanical and morphological investigation. J. Mater. Sci. 49: 2559–2566, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-013-7951-z.Search in Google Scholar
Zakikhani, P., Zahari, R., Sultan, M.T.H., and Majid, D.L. (2014). Extraction and preparation of bamboo fibre-reinforced composites. Mater. Design 63: 820–828, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2014.06.058.Search in Google Scholar
© 2020 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
