Abstract
In this article we review contemporary research testing Martineau’s (1972) hypothesis that disparagement humor fosters or introduces prejudice against the disparaged out-group. Supporting Martineau’s hypothesis, research suggests that instigating disparagement humor might indeed foster prejudice against the targeted group; however, through mechanisms that do not implicate unique effects of humor as a medium for communicating disparagement. Contrary to Martineau’s hypothesis, it does not appear that exposure to disparagement humor promotes a negative disposition toward the targeted group. Rather than acting as an initiator of prejudice, disparagement humor functions as a releaser of existing prejudice. Lastly, following Martineau’s theoretical framework, we identify new questions about the social consequences of disparagement humor that require further theoretical development and empirical research.
About the authors
Thomas E. Ford is a professor of psychology at Western Carolina University. He received his B. S. from Texas Christian University and his Ph.D. in Social Psychology from the University of Maryland. His research interests include the role of disparagement humor in promoting expressions of prejudice and the relationship between humor and subjective well-being.
Kyle Richardson is a M.A. student at Western Carolina University. He received his B.A. in psychology at Appalachian State University in 2012. His research interests focus on group processes, social influence, and the relationship between disparagement humor and discrimination.
Whitney E. Petit is a Ph.D. student studying social psychology at the University of Houston. She received her M.A. in general and experimental psychology from Western Carolina University in 2014. Her research interests focus on disparagement humor and close relationships.
References
Aronson, Joshua, Diane M.Quinn & Steven J.Spencer. 1998. Stereotype threat and the academic underperformance of minorities and women. In J. K.Swim & C.Stangor (eds.), Prejudice: The target’s perspective, 83–103. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.10.1016/B978-012679130-3/50039-9Search in Google Scholar
Attardo, Salvatore.1993. Violation of conversational maxims and cooperation: The case of jokes. Journal of Pragmatics19. 537–558.10.1016/0378-2166(93)90111-2Search in Google Scholar
Bell, Myrtle P., Mary E.McLaughlin, & Jennifer M.Sequeira. 2002. Discrimination, harassment, and the glass ceiling: Women executives as change agents. Journal of Business Ethics37. 65–76.Search in Google Scholar
Berlyne, Daniel E.1972. Humor and its kin. In J. H.Goldstein & P. E.McGhee (eds.), The psychology of humor,43–60. New York: Academic.10.1016/B978-0-12-288950-9.50008-0Search in Google Scholar
Bill, Brigitte & PeterNaus.1992. The role of humor in the interpretation of sexist incidents. Sex Roles27. 645–664.10.1007/BF02651095Search in Google Scholar
Brown, Lisa M.1998. Ethnic stigma as a contextual experience: A possible selves perspective. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin24(2). 163–172.10.1177/0146167298242005Search in Google Scholar
Calogero, Rachel M. & AfroditiPina. 2011. Body guilt: Preliminary evidence for a further subjective experience of self-objectification. Psychology of Women Quarterly35. 428–440. doi: 10.1177/0361684311408564Search in Google Scholar
Cantor, Joanne R. & DolfZillmann. 1973. Resentment toward victimized protagonists and severity of misfortunes they suffer as factors in humor appreciation. Journal of Experimental Research in Personality6. 321–329.Search in Google Scholar
Crandall, Christian S. & AmyEshleman. 2003. A justification-suppression model of the expression and experience of prejudice. Psychological Bulletin129. 414–446.10.1037/0033-2909.129.3.414Search in Google Scholar
Crandall, Christian S., Mark AFerguson, & Angela J.Bahns. 2013. When we see prejudice: The normative window and social change. In C.Stangor & C. S.Crandall (eds.), Stereotyping and prejudice, 53–70. New York: Psychology Press.Search in Google Scholar
Deutsch, Morton & Harold B.Gerard.1955. A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology51. 629–636.10.1037/h0046408Search in Google Scholar
Dovidio, John F.2001. On the nature of contemporary prejudice: The third wave. Journal of Social Issues57. 829–849. doi:10.1111/0022–4537.0024410.1111/0022-4537.00244Search in Google Scholar
Emerson, Joan P.1969. Negotiating the serious import of humor. Sociometry32. 169–181.10.2307/2786261Search in Google Scholar
Ferguson, Mark A. & Thomas E.Ford. 2008. Disparagement humor: A theoretical and empirical review of psychoanalytic, superiority and social identity theories. Humor: International Journal of Humor Research21(3). 283–312.Search in Google Scholar
Festinger, Leon.1957. A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.10.1515/9781503620766Search in Google Scholar
Fine, Gary A.1983. Sociological approaches to the study of humor. In P. E.McGhee & J. H.Goldstein (eds.), Handbook of humor research, 159–181. New York: Springer-Verlag.10.1007/978-1-4612-5572-7_8Search in Google Scholar
Ford, Thomas E.1997. Effects of stereotypical television portrayals of African-Americans on person perception. Social Psychology Quarterly60. 266–278.10.2307/2787086Search in Google Scholar
Ford, Thomas E.2000. Effects of sexist humor on tolerance of sexist events. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin26(9). 1094–1107.10.1177/01461672002611006Search in Google Scholar
Ford, Thomas E., Christie F.Boxer, Jacob A.Armstrong & Jessica R.Edel. 2008. More than just a joke: The prejudice-releasing function of sexist humor. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin34. 159–170.10.1177/0146167207310022Search in Google Scholar
Ford, Thomas E. & Mark A.Ferguson. 2004. Social consequences of disparagement humor: A prejudiced norm theory. Personality and Social Psychology Review8. 79–94. doi:10.1207/S15327957PSPR0801_410.1207/S15327957PSPR0801_4Search in Google Scholar
Ford, Thomas E., Erin R.Wentzel & JoliLorion. 2001. Effects of exposure to sexist humor on perceptions of normative tolerance of sexism. European Journal of Social Psychology31. 677–691.10.1002/ejsp.56Search in Google Scholar
Ford, Thomas E., Julie A.Woodzicka, Shane R.Triplett & Annie O.Kochersberger. 2013. Sexist Humor and Beliefs that Justify Societal Sexism. Current Research in Social PsychologySeptember. 64–81.Search in Google Scholar
Ford, Thomas. E., Julie A.Woodzicka, Shane R.Triplett, Annie O.Kochersberger & ChristopherJ. Holden. 2014. Not all groups are equal: Differential vulnerability of social groups to the prejudice-releasing effects of disparagement humor. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations17. 178–199. doi:10.1177/1368430213502558.10.1177/1368430213502558Search in Google Scholar
Fredrickson, Barbara L., Tomi-AnnRoberts, StephanieM.Noll, Diane M. Quinn & Jean M.Twenge. 1998. That swimsuit becomes you: Sex differences in self objectification, restrained eating, and math performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology75. 269–284. doi:10.1037/0022–3514.75.1.26910.1037/0022-3514.75.1.269Search in Google Scholar
Glick, Peter & Susan T.Fiske.1996. The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology70. 491–512.10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.491Search in Google Scholar
Gollob, Harry F. & JacobLevine. 1967. Distraction as a factor in the enjoyment of aggressive humor. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology5. 368–372.10.1037/h0024310Search in Google Scholar
Greenwood, Dara & Linda M.Isbell.2002. Ambivalent sexism and the dumb blonde: Men’s and women’s reactions to sexist jokes. Psychology of Women Quarterly26. 341–350.10.1111/1471-6402.t01-2-00073Search in Google Scholar
Gruner, Charles R.1997. The game of humor: A comprehensive theory of why we laugh. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.Search in Google Scholar
Hemmasi, Masoud & Lee A.Graf.1998. Sexual and sexist humor in the work place: Just “good fun” or sexual harassment? Proceedings of Decision Sciences Institute, 455–457. Las Vegas, NE: DSI.Search in Google Scholar
Hobden, Karen L. & James M.Olson. 1994. From jest to antipathy: Disparagement humor as a source of dissonance-motivated attitude change. Basic and Applied Social Psychology15. 239–249.10.1207/s15324834basp1503_2Search in Google Scholar
Janes, Leslie M. & James M.Olson.2000. Jeer pressure: The behavioral effects of observing ridicule of others. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin26. 474–485.10.1177/0146167200266006Search in Google Scholar
Johnson, A. Michael.1990. The “only joking” defense: Attribution bias or impression management?Psychological Reports67. 1051–1056.10.2466/PR0.67.7.1051-1056Search in Google Scholar
Jost, John T. & Aaron C.Kay.2005. Exposure to benevolent sexism and complementary gender stereotypes: Consequences for specific and diffuse forms of system justification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology88, 498–509.Search in Google Scholar
Kane, Thomas R., JerrySuls & James T.Tedeschi.1977. Humour as a tool of social interaction. In A. J.Chapman & H. C.Foot (eds.), It’s a funny thing, humor, 13–16. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon.10.1016/B978-0-08-021376-7.50007-3Search in Google Scholar
Khoury, Robert M.1985. Norm formation, social conformity, and the confederating function of humor. Social Behavior and Personality13. 159–165.Search in Google Scholar
La Fave, Lawrence, JayHaddad & William A.Maesen.1996 [1976]. Superiority, enhanced self-esteem, and perceived incongruity humor theory. In A. J.Chapman & H. C.Foot (eds.), Humor and laughter: Theory, research and applications, 63–91. New York: Wiley and Sons.10.4324/9780203789469-5Search in Google Scholar
La Fave, Lawrence, KevinMcCarthy & JayHaddad.1973. Humor judgments as a function of identification classes: Canadian vs. American. Journal of Psychology85. 53–59.10.1080/00223980.1973.9923860Search in Google Scholar
LaFrance, Marianne & Julie A.Woodzicka. 1998. No laughing matter: Women’s verbal and nonverbal reactions to sexist humor. In J.Swim & C.Stangor (eds.), Prejudice: The target’s perspective, 61–80. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.10.1016/B978-012679130-3/50038-7Search in Google Scholar
Latané, Bibb. 1981. The psychology of social impact. American psychologist36 (4). 343.10.1037/0003-066X.36.4.343Search in Google Scholar
Latané, Bibb & StephenHarkins. 1976. Cross-modality matches suggest anticipated stage fright a multiplicative power function of audience size and status. Perception & Psychophysics20(6). 482–488.10.3758/BF03208286Search in Google Scholar
Love, Ann M. & Lambert H.Deckers. 1989. Humor appreciation as a function of sexual, aggressive, and sexist content. Sex Roles20. 649–654.Search in Google Scholar
Maio, Gregory R., James M.Olson & JacquelineBush. 1997. Telling jokes that disparage social groups: Effects on the joke-teller’s stereotypes. Journal of Applied Social Psychology27. 1986–2000.10.1111/j.1559-1816.1997.tb01636.xSearch in Google Scholar
Mannell, Roger C.1977. Vicarious superiority, injustice, and aggression in humor: The role of the playful judgmental set. In A. J.Chapman & H. C.Foot (eds.), It’s a funny thing, humor, 273–276. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon.10.1016/B978-0-08-021376-7.50052-8Search in Google Scholar
Martineau, William H.1972. A model of social functions of humor. In J. H.Goldstein & P. E.McGhee (eds.), The psychology of humor, 101–125. New York: Academic.10.1016/B978-0-12-288950-9.50011-0Search in Google Scholar
McGhee, Paul E.1972. On the cognitive origins of incongruity humor: Fantasy assimilation versus reality assimilation. In J. H.Goldstein & P. E.McGhee (eds.), The psychology of humor, 61–79. New York: Academic.10.1016/B978-0-12-288950-9.50009-2Search in Google Scholar
McGhee, Paul E. & Nelda S.Duffey. 1983. The role of identity of the victim in the development of disparagement humor. Journal of General Psychology108. 257–270.10.1080/00221309.1983.9711499Search in Google Scholar
Meyer, John C.2000. Humor as a double-edged sword: Four functions of humor in communication. Communication Theory10. 310–331.10.1111/j.1468-2885.2000.tb00194.xSearch in Google Scholar
Montemurro, Beth.2003. Not a laughing matter: Sexual harassment as “material” on workplace-based situation comedies. Sex roles48(9–10). 433–445.10.1023/A:1023578528629Search in Google Scholar
Mulkay, Michael J.1988. On humor: Its nature and its place in modern society. New York: Blackwell Inc.Search in Google Scholar
Mutuma, Hwenje, LawrenceLa Fave, RogerMannell & Ann M.Guilmette.1977. Ethnic humour is no joke. In A. J.Chapman & H. C.Foot (Eds.), It’s a funny thing, humor,277–280. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon.10.1016/B978-0-08-021376-7.50053-XSearch in Google Scholar
Neuliep, James W.1987. Gender differences in the perception of sexual and nonsexual humor. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality2. 345–351.Search in Google Scholar
Olson, James M., Gregory R.Maio & Karen L.Hobden. 1999. The (null) effects of exposure to disparagement humor on stereotypes and attitudes. Humor: International Journal of Humor Research12. 195–219.10.1515/humr.1999.12.2.195Search in Google Scholar
Paluck, Elizabeth L.2011. Peer pressure against prejudice: A high school field experiment examining social network change. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology47. 350–358. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2010.11.01710.1016/j.jesp.2010.11.017Search in Google Scholar
Pearson, Adam R., John F.Dovidio, & Samuel L.Gaertner. 2009. The nature of contemporary prejudice: Insights from aversive racism. Social and Personality Psychology Compass3. 314–338. doi:10.1111/j.1751–9004.2009.00183.x10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00183.xSearch in Google Scholar
Plant, E. Ashby & Patricia G.Devine. 1998. Internal and external motivation to respond without prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology75. 811–832.10.1037/0022-3514.75.3.811Search in Google Scholar
Romero-Sanchez, Monica, MercedesDuran, HugoCarretero-Dios, Jesus L.Megias & MiguelMoya. 2010. Exposure to sexist humor and rape proclivity: The moderator effect of aversiveness ratings. Journal of Interpersonal Violence25(12). 2339–2350.10.1177/0886260509354884Search in Google Scholar
Ryan, Kathryn M. & JeanneKanjorski. 1998. The enjoyment of sexist humor, rape attitudes, and relationship aggression in college students. Sex Roles38. 743–756.Search in Google Scholar
Steele, Claude M. & JoshuaAronson. 1995. Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology69. 797–811.10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797Search in Google Scholar
Thomae, Manuela & G.Tendayi Viki.2013. Why did the woman cross the road? The effect of sexist humor on men’s rape proclivity. Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology7(3). 250.Search in Google Scholar
Viki, G. Tendayi, ManuelaThomae, AmyCullen & HannahFernandez.2007. The effect of sexist humor and type of rape on men’s self-reported rape proclivity and victim blame. Current Research in Social Psychology13(10). 122–132.Search in Google Scholar
Weston, C. M., & C. J.Thomsen.1993 (August). No joking matter: Sex-typed comedy perpetuates traditional views of women. Paper presented at the American Psychological Association conference, Toronto, Canada.Search in Google Scholar
Wicker, Frank W., William L.Barron III & Amy C.Willis.1980. Disparagement humor: Dispositions and resolutions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology39. 701–709.10.1037/0022-3514.39.4.701Search in Google Scholar
Wittenbrink, Bernd & Julia R.Henly.1996. Creating social reality: Informational social influence and content of stereotypic beliefs. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin22. 598–610.10.1177/0146167296226005Search in Google Scholar
Zillmann, Dolf.1983. Disparagement humor. In P. E.McGhee & J. H.Goldstein (eds.), Handbook of humor research, 85–107. New York: Springer-Verlag.10.1007/978-1-4612-5572-7_5Search in Google Scholar
Zillmann, Dolf, & Joanne R.Cantor.1996 [1976]. A dispositional theory of humor and mirth. In A. J.Chapman & H. C.Foot (eds.), Humor and laughter: Theory, research and applications, 93–116. New York: Wiley.10.4324/9780203789469-6Search in Google Scholar
©2015 by De Gruyter Mouton
