Abstract
Despite Federal directives calling for an integrated approach to strengthening the resilience of critical infrastructure systems, little is known about the relationship between human behavior and infrastructure resilience. While it is well recognized that human response can either amplify or mitigate catastrophe, the role of human or psychological resilience when infrastructure systems are confronted with surprise remains an oversight in policy documents and resilience research. Existing research treats human resilience and technological resilience as separate capacities that may create stress conditions that act upon one another. There remains a knowledge gap regarding study of those attributes in each that build infrastructure resilience as an integrated system of humans and technologies. This work draws on concepts found in the resilience engineering and psychology literature to examine the dynamic relationships between human resilience and the resilience of complex, socio-technical critical infrastructure systems. We identify and organize 18 system capacities and 23 human capacities that influence infrastructure resilience. We then correlate individual human and system resilience capacities to determine how each influences four socio-technical processes for resilience: sensing, anticipating, adapting, and learning. Our analysis shows that the human and technical resilience capacities reviewed are interconnected, interrelated, and interdependent. Further, we find current literature is focused more on cognitive and behavioral dimensions of human resilience and we offer ways to better incorporate affective capacities. Together, we present a simple way to link the resilience of technological systems to the cognitive, behavioral, and affective dimensions of humans responsible for the system design, operation, and management.
Funding source: National Science Foundation
Award Identifier / Grant number: 1441352
Funding statement: National Science Foundation, Funder Id: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100000001, Grant Number: 1441352.
Appendix
Appendix A
Technical resilience capacities
| Resilience capacity | Description, findings | Authors |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Adaptive capacity | Ability to recover stability and performance and survive a disruptive event or threat | (Madni and Jackson 2009; Jackson and Ferris 2012) |
| 2. Autonomy (local) | Loose coupling (H-p220) Independence among options and solutions | (Fiksel 2003; MacAskill and Guthrie 2015) |
| 3. Avoidance, early detection | Foresee, detect, prevent drift toward brittleness; maintain state during disruption | (Hollnagel, Woods, and Leveson 2006; Larkin et al. 2015; Dinh et al. 2012) |
| 4. Buffering | Kind/size of perturbations that can be absorbed/adapted to, without compromising performance | (Woods 2006) |
| 5. Cohesion | Strong forces that unify or bring together; the capacity of a system to function as a whole unit amid threats and disruption | (Fiksel 2003; Larkin et al. 2015; Mu et al. 2011; Jackson and Ferris 2012) |
| 6. Compensation | Engaging additional resources like buffering and reserve margin to maintain stability within a viable operating region during adaptive system failure. Adapting performance to cope with increased demand | (Rankin et al. 2013) |
| 7. Control | Adaptive capacity management in relation to tradeoffs among multiple dimensions, dynamic access to a preferred system state | (Woods 2015; Alderson, Gerald Brown, and Matthew Carlyle 2014; Dinh et al. 2012) |
| 8. Coping | Capacity to sustain unexpected surprise and complexity, local and spontaneous | (Hollnagel, Woods, and Leveson 2006; Madni and Jackson 2009; Labaka, Hernantes, and Sarriegi 2016) |
| 9. Diversity | Variety of system operational/functional behavior and performance; multiple products and services; alternative plant location | (Fiksel 2003; Larkin et al. 2015; Mu et al. 2011) |
| 10. Efficacy | Effectiveness of system to identify and mitigate hazards, System response to specific inputs and risks | (Hollnagel, Woods, and Leveson 2006; Haimes 2009) |
| 11. Efficiency | Tradeoff with brittleness at boundary conditions; maintain a viable operating level with minimal resource consumption | (Fiksel 2003; Hollnagel et al. 2011) |
| 12. Flexibility | Capacity to adjust performance in response to external changes, threats, boundary conditions, and viable operating region; lack of flexibility contributes to brittleness; exploit resilience principle | (Woods 2006; Paries 2011; Dinh et al. 2012; Jackson and Ferris 2012) |
| 13. Goals management | Tradeoff between acute and chronic goals; conflicting goals pit safety against efficiency; dynamic balancing | (Woods 2006) |
| 14. Maneuverability | Ability to regulate the risk of brittleness; ability to manage variability; continuous adjustment to conditions | (Madni and Jackson 2009) |
| 15. Margin | Ability to manage boundary conditions; how close is the system operation to boundary; successful compensation | (Woods 2006) |
| 16. Pinging, early detection | Proactive probing for changes in risk profile, rapid and accurate access to changes in system states | (Hollnagel, Woods, and Leveson 2006; Dinh et al. 2012) |
| 17. Survival | Ability of system to persevere and survive while providing a viable level of service | (Hollnagel, Woods, and Leveson 2006) |
| 18. Tolerance | How a system behaves at the boundary; graceful or abrupt degradation | (Woods 2006; Jackson and Ferris 2012) |
Appendix B
Human Resilience Capacities
Cognitive Dimension
| Human resilience | Description, findings | Authors |
|---|---|---|
| Cognitive | ||
| 1. Balanced perspective on experience | Personal beliefs that promote a sense of meaning and purpose; ability to sustain effort over time; help overcome negative effect of personal, social, and economic risks; a sense of equanimity about one’s life conditions | (Olsson et al. 2003; Sinclair and Wallston 2004; Skodol 2010; Dyer and Mcguinness 1996) |
| 2. Fortitude, conviction, tenacity, and resolve | Perseverance to tasks and goals; sustained by a deeply held belief that life has meaning; beliefs that sustain motivation and effort to adapt/survive; mastery motivation; agency | (Masten and Wright 2010; Olsson et al. 2003; Masten 2014a; Dyer and Mcguinness 1996) |
| 3. Moral reasoning | Informed conscience, capacity to judge right from wrong; valuing compassion, fairness and decency; internal standards for the way things should be; based on ethical grounds; moral perception associated with faith | (Kumpfer 1995; Stokols, Lejano, and Hipp 2013) |
| 4. Perceive beneficial/strengthening effect of stress | Viewing stress as an opportunity for growth; positive perception of stress; enhanced optimism, patience, and perceived value of interpersonal communications; posttraumatic growth; learning from crises | (Connor and Davidson 2003; Connor 2006; Rutter 1985; Lyons 1991; Tedeschi and Calhoun 2004; Kobasa 1979) |
| 5. Personal/collective goals | Ability to set desirable objectives and obtain a sense of mastery when life events threaten beliefs; contribute to a sense of coherence and meaning; self regulation | (Connor and Davidson 2003; Connor 2006; Rutter 1985; Mayer and Faber 2010) |
| 6. Self-esteem | Having a value, acceptance, and respect of oneself; sense of self-worth; positive self-appraisal of personal strengths and capabilities; enhanced by creativity | (Connor and Davidson 2003; Connor 2006; Skodol 2010; Campbell, Chew, and Scratchley 1991; Rutter 1987; Kumpfer 1995) |
| 7. View change/stress as a challenge/opportunity | Perceive stress as a vehicle of positive change; experiences of awakening to responsibility, validation and acceptance from others; able to be self-nurturing to recognize and seek-out individual needs | (Connor and Davidson 2003; Connor 2006; Kobasa 1979; Skodol 2010; Lyons 1991) |
Affective Dimension
| Human resilience | Description, findings | Authors |
|---|---|---|
| Affective | ||
| 8. Coping | The emotional dimension of coping involves adopting new perspectives of adverse events to benefit one’s values and beliefs thereby supporting feelings of control; An emotional approach to adaptation involving the expression of emotions as a means of actively moving toward acceptance and positive re-appraisal of stressful encounters; Buffer effects of stress on psychological outcomes; Availability of responses to endure stress | (Luthar, Cicchetti, and Becker 2000; Folkman and Moskowitz 2004; Stanton, Parsa, and Austenfeld 2002; Sinclair and Wallston 2004; Kobasa 1979; Skodol 2010) |
| 9. Faith, religion | Helps integrate meaning of both individual and social disruptive life events; Religious beliefs help stabilize emotions and emotional behavior and can help promote emotional resilience; Positively influences an individual’s ability to cope with life stressors and impacts subjective well-being | (Park and Folkman 1997; Murphy, Johnson, and Lohan 2003; Freud 2012; Krause 2003; Pargament and Cummings 2010) |
| 10. Hopefulness | Positive motivation/outlook based on successful agency; associated with positive adaptation to stress | (Kumpfer 1995; Olsson et al. 2003; Ong, Edwards, and Bergeman 2006) |
| 11. Internal locus of control | Believing that life’s challenges are related more to an individual’s behavior rather than bad luck or some other person; contributes to effective coping; belief that one is an active participant and determinant of outcomes | (Skodol 2010; Kobasa 1979; Connor and Davidson 2003; Connor 2006; Kumpfer 1995) |
| 12. Optimism | Positive appraisal/outlook of stressful events or adverse conditions; belief that one can influence the outcome of a stressful situation; associated with coping, positive reinterpretation, and seeking support | (Connor and Davidson 2003; Connor 2006; Kumpfer 1995; Skodol 2010) |
| 13. Patience | Capacity to accept/tolerate delay, accepting of conditions without undue stress | (Connor and Davidson 2003; Connor 2006; Lyons 1991) |
| 14. Self-commitment | Pledge to self; adherence and persevere with of intention, direction, and responsibility; ability to feel deeply involved; belief system minimizes perceived threat; vital to health under stress | (Kobasa 1979; Kumpfer 1995; Connor and Davidson 2003; Connor 2006) |
| 15. Sense of humor | Able to view the ironic and amusing aspects of stress and conflict; cognitive reappraisal to adjust perspective and reference frame of experience to evoke positive emotion/meaning; emotional regulation; defense mechanism to ameliorate stress | (Connor and Davidson 2003; Connor 2006; Rutter 1985; Fraser, Galinsky, and Richman 1999; Feder et al. 2010; Skodol 2010) |
| 16. Sense of meaningfulness, purpose | Self-perception of values, goals, capabilities; cognitive control | (Connor and Davidson 2003; Connor 2006; Kobasa 1979) |
Behavioral Dimension
| Human resilience | Description | References |
|---|---|---|
| Behavioral | ||
| 17. Ability to adapt to change | Adjust behavior to accommodate environmental conditions, stressors, and negative effects; ability to anticipate and plan and take reflective actions, related to agency | (Connor and Davidson 2003; Connor 2006; Rutter 1985; Kumpfer 1995; Brown and Westaway 2011) |
| 18. Ability to use past successes to confront current challenge | Capacity to engage cognitive reappraisal to find benefit from stressors; accepting of life conditions and imperfections | (Connor and Davidson 2003; Connor 2006; Pargament and Cummings 2010) |
| 19. Agency, action-oriented approach | Mastery motivation system, self-perception of positive and effective action, enact adaptive pathways, capacity to self-direct, builds confidence | (Connor and Davidson 2003; Connor 2006; Rutter 1985; Masten and Wright 2010; Brown and Westaway 2011) |
| 20. Engaging the support of others (a.k.a. social support) | Social resources (friends and relatives) promote positive adaptation; mentors and role models can alleviate stress; acts as a stress buffer; outlet for expression of feelings and assist navigating life conditions; facilitates adjustment to trauma | (Connor and Davidson 2003; Connor 2006; Rutter 1985; Skodol 2010; Friborg and Hjemdal 2003; Garcia-Dia et al. 2013) |
| 21. Secure attachments to others | Close bonding relationships; universal process in human development that begins in infancy with caregivers, parents, and family; also involves close relationships with friends and romantic partners; threats trigger behaviors seeking contact and reassurance; provides secure base for exploring the world; supports the process of agency and mastery motivation | (Connor and Davidson 2003; Connor 2006; Olsson et al. 2003; Masten and Wright 2010; Ungar 2006; Friborg and Hjemdal 2003) |
| 22. Self-efficacy | Belief and confidence in one’s ability to achieve a goal and overcome adversity and disruptive events; self-confidence; belief in one’s ability to navigate and manage difficulties effectively | (Garcia-Dia et al. 2013; Rutter 1993, 1987; Olsson et al. 2003; Skodol 2010) |
| 23. Tolerance of negative effect | Sufficient internal coping mechanisms to manage stressors; strategies for dealing with traumatic conditions | (Connor and Davidson 2003; Connor 2006; Olsson et al. 2003; Smith 1999) |
References
Alderson, David L., Gerald G. Brown, and W. Matthew Carlyle. 2014. “Assessing and Improving Operational Resilience of Critical Infrastructures and Other Systems.” In Tutorials in Operations Research, pp. 180–215. Hanover, MD: Institute for Operations Research and Management Science.10.1287/educ.2014.0131Search in Google Scholar
Bonanno, George. 2004. “Loss, Trauma, and Human Resilience: Have We Underestimated the Human Capacity to Thrive after Extremely Aversive Events?” The American Psychologist 59 (1): 20–28.10.1037/0003-066X.59.1.20Search in Google Scholar
Brand, Fridolin, and Kurt Jax. 2007. “Focusing the Meaning (S) of Resilience: Resilience as a Descriptive Concept and a Boundary Object.” Ecology and Society 12 (1): 23.10.5751/ES-02029-120123Search in Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, Urie. 2005. Making Human Beings Human: Bioecological Perspectives on Human Development. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.Search in Google Scholar
Brown, Katrina, and Elizabeth Westaway. 2011. “Agency, Capacity, and Resilience to Environmental Change: Lessons from Human Development, Well-Being, and Disasters.” Annual Review of Environment and Resources 36 (1): 321–342.10.1146/annurev-environ-052610-092905Search in Google Scholar
Campbell, Jennifer D., Barry Chew, and Linda S. Scratchley. 1991. “Cognitive and Emotional Reactions to Daily Events: The Effects of Self-Esteem and Self-Complexity.” Journal of Personality 59 (3): 473–505.10.1111/j.1467-6494.1991.tb00257.xSearch in Google Scholar
Clark, Susan, Thomas Seager, and Evan Selinger. 2015. “A Development-Based Approach to Global Climate Policy.” Environment Systems and Decisions 35 (1): 1–10.10.1007/s10669-015-9533-xSearch in Google Scholar
Connelly, Elizabeth B., Craig R. Allen, Kirk Hatfield, José M. Palma-Oliveira, David D. Woods, and Igor Linkov. 2017. “Features of Resilience.” Environment Systems and Decisions 37 (1): 46–50.10.1007/s10669-017-9634-9Search in Google Scholar
Connor, Kathryn M. 2006. “Assessment of Resilience in the Aftermath of Trauma.” Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 67 (suppl 2): 46–49.Search in Google Scholar
Connor, Kathryn M., and Jonathan R. T. Davidson. 2003. “Development of a New Resilience Scale: The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC).” Depression and Anxiety 18 (2): 76–82.10.1002/da.10113Search in Google Scholar
Cutter, Susan, Joseph Ahearn, Bernard Amadei, Patrick Crawford, Michael Goodchild, Howard Kunreuther, Meredith Li-Vollmer, Monica Schoch-Spana, Susan Scrimsha, Ellis Stanley, Gene Whitney, and Mary Lou Zoback. 2012. Disaster Resilience: A National Imperative. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press.10.1080/00139157.2013.768076Search in Google Scholar
Cvijetic, Sergej B., and Feda T. Netjasovov Feda. 2015. “Functional Resonance Analysis Method and Its Application on Zagreb Mid-Air Collision.” Tehnika 70(2): 324–330.10.5937/tehnika1502324CSearch in Google Scholar
DHS. 2009. National Infrastructure Protection Plan. Washington, DC. http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&btnG=Search&q=intitle:National+Infrastructure+Protection+Plan#0.Search in Google Scholar
DHS. 2013. National Infrastructure Protection Plan. Department of Homeland Security.Search in Google Scholar
Dinh, Linh T. T., Hans Pasman, Xiaodan Gao, and M. Sam Mannan. 2012. “Resilience Engineering of Industrial Processes: Principles and Contributing Factors.” Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 25 (2): 233–241.10.1016/j.jlp.2011.09.003Search in Google Scholar
Dyer, Janyce G., and Teena Minton Mcguinness. 1996. “Resilience : Analysis of the Concept.” Psychiatric Nursing X (5): 276–282.10.1016/S0883-9417(96)80036-7Search in Google Scholar
Feder, Adriana, Eric J. Nestler, Maren Westphal, and Dennis S. Charney. 2010. “Psychobiological Mechanisms of Resilience to Stress.” In Handbook of Adult Resilience, edited by John W. Reich, Alex J. Zautra, and John Stuart Hall. pp. 35–54. New York.Search in Google Scholar
Fiksel, Joseph. 2003. “Designing Resilient, Sustainable Systems.” Environmental Science & Technology 37 (23): 5330–5339.10.1021/es0344819Search in Google Scholar
Folkman, Susan, and Judith Tedlie Moskowitz. 2004. “COPING : Pitfalls and Promise.” Annual Review of Psychology 55: 745–774.10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141456Search in Google Scholar
Fraser, Mark W., Maeda J. Galinsky, and Jack M. Richman. 1999. “Risk, Protection, and Resilience: Toward a Conceptual Framework for Social Work Practice.” Social Work Research 23 (3): 131–143.10.1093/swr/23.3.131Search in Google Scholar
Freud, Sigmund. 2012. The Future of an Illusion, edited by Todd Dufresne. Buffalo, New York: Broadview Press.Search in Google Scholar
Friborg, Oddgeir, and Odin Hjemdal. 2003. “A New Rating Scale for Adult Resilience: What Are the Central Protective Resources behind Healthy Adjustment?” International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 12 (2): 65–76.10.1002/mpr.143Search in Google Scholar
Friborg, Oddgeir, Dag Barlaug, Monica Martinussen, Jan H. Rosenvinge, and Odin Hjemdal. 2005. “Resilience in Relation to Personality and Intelligence.” International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 14(1): 29–42.10.1002/mpr.15Search in Google Scholar
Garcia-Dia, Mary Joy, Jean Marie, Leila Garcia-Ona, Rita Jakubowski, and Deirdre O. Flaherty. 2013. “Archives of Psychiatric Nursing Concept Analysis : Resilience.” Archives of Psychiatric Nursing 27 (6): 264–270.10.1016/j.apnu.2013.07.003Search in Google Scholar
Haimes, Yacov Y. 2009. “On the Definition of Resilience in Systems.” Risk Analysis 29 (4): 498–501.10.1111/j.1539-6924.2009.01216.xSearch in Google Scholar
Hassler, Uta, and Niklaus Kohler. 2014. “Resilience in the Built Environment.” Building Research & Information 42 (March 2015): 119–29.10.1080/09613218.2014.873593Search in Google Scholar
Holling, C. 1996. “Engineering Resilience Versus Ecological Resilience.” In Engineering Within Ecological Constraints, 31–44.Search in Google Scholar
Hollins, Lucien X., Daniel A. Eisenberg, and Thomas P. Seager. 2018. “Risk and Resilience at the Oroville Dam.” Infrastructures 3(49): 1–17.10.3390/infrastructures3040049Search in Google Scholar
Hollnagel, E. 2012. FRAM: The Functional Resonance Analysis Method: Modeling Complex Socio-Technical Systems. Vermont: Ashgate.Search in Google Scholar
Hollnagel, Erik. 2014. “Resilience Engineering and the Built Environment.” Building Research & Information 42(2): 221–228.10.1080/09613218.2014.862607Search in Google Scholar
Hollnagel, Erik, and Yushi Fujita. 2013. “The Fukushima Disaster: Systemic Failures as the Lack of Resilience.” Nuclear Engineering and Technology 45(1): 13–20.10.5516/NET.03.2011.078Search in Google Scholar
Hollnagel, Erik, David D. Woods, and Nancy Leveson. 2006. Resilience Engineering: Concepts and Precepts. Vermont: Ashgate.Search in Google Scholar
Hollnagel, Erik, Jean Paries, David D. Woods, and John Wreathall. 2011. Resilience Engineering in Practice: A Guidebook. Vermont: Ashgate.Search in Google Scholar
Hosseini, Seyedmohsen, Kash Barker, and Jose E. Ramirez-Marquez. 2015. “A Review of Definitions and Measures of System Resilience.” Reliability Engineering & System Safety. 145: 47–61.10.1016/j.ress.2015.08.006Search in Google Scholar
IAEA. 2015. “The Fukushima Daiichi Accident.” International Atomic Energy Agency: Report by the Director General.Search in Google Scholar
Jackson, Scott, and Timothy L. J. Ferris. 2012. “Resilience Principles for Engineered Systems.” Systems Engineering 16(2): 152–164.10.1002/sys.21228Search in Google Scholar
Kaminsky, Michael, O. Lee McCabe, Alan M. Langlieb, and George S. Everly. 2007. “An Evidence-Informed Model of Human Resistance, Resilience, and Recovery: The Johns Hopkins’ Outcome-Driven Paradigm for Disaster Mental Health Services.” Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention 7 (1): 1–11.10.1093/brief-treatment/mhl015Search in Google Scholar
Kobasa, Suzanne C. 1979. “Stressful Life Events, Personality, and Health: An Inquiry into Hardiness.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37 (1): 1–11.10.1037/0022-3514.37.1.1Search in Google Scholar
Krause, Neal. 2003 . “Religious Meaning and Subjective Well-Being in Late Life.” The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 58 (3): S160– S170.10.1093/geronb/58.3.S160Search in Google Scholar
Kumpfer, Karol L. 1995. “Factors and Processes Contributing to Resilience: The Resilience Framework.” In Resilience and Development: Positive Life Adaptations, pp. 179– 224. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.10.1007/0-306-47167-1_9Search in Google Scholar
Labaka, Leire, Josune Hernantes, and Jose M. Sarriegi. 2016. “A Holistic Framework for Building Critical Infrastructure Resilience.” Technological Forecasting and Social Change 103: 21–33.10.1016/j.techfore.2015.11.005Search in Google Scholar
Larkin, Sabrina, Cate Fox-Lent, Daniel A. Eisenberg, Benjamin D. Trump, Sean Wallace, Colin Chadderton, and Igor Linkov. 2015. “Benchmarking Agency and Organizational Practices in Resilience Decision Making.” Environment Systems and Decisions 35(2): 185–195.10.1007/s10669-015-9554-5Search in Google Scholar
Laugé, Ana, Josune Hernantes, and Jose M. Sarriegi. 2015. “Critical Infrastructure Dependencies: A Holistic, Dynamic and Quantitative Approach.” International Journal of Critical Infrastructure Protection 8: 16–23.10.1016/j.ijcip.2014.12.004Search in Google Scholar
Leavitt, William M., and John J. Kiefer. 2006. “Infrastructure Interdependency and the Creation of a Normal Disaster.” Public Works Management & Policy 10 (4): 306–314.10.1177/1087724X06289055Search in Google Scholar
Linkov, Igor, Daniel A. Eisenberg, Matthew E. Bates, Derek Chang, Matteo Convertino, Julia H. Allen, Stephen E. Flynn, and Thomas P. Seager. 2013. “Measurable Resilience for Actionable Policy.” Environmental Science & Technology 47 (18): 10108–10110.10.1021/es403443nSearch in Google Scholar
Linkov, Igor, Cate Fox-lent, Laura Read, Craig R. Allen, James C. Arnott, Emanuele Bellini, Jon Coaffee, Marie-Valentine Florin, Kirk Hatfield, Iain Hyde, William Hynes, Aleksandar Jovanovic, Roger Kasperson, John Katzenberger, Patrick W. Keys, James H. Lambert, Richard Moss, Peter S. Murdoch, Jose Palma-Oliveira, Roger S. Pulwarty, Dale Sands, Edward A. Thomas, Mari R. Tye, and David Woods. 2018. “Tiered Approach to Resilience Assessment.” Risk Analysis 38(9): 1772–1780.10.1111/risa.12991Search in Google Scholar
Lipsitt, Lewis P., and Jack Demick. 2012. “Theory and Measurememt of Resilience: Views from Development.” In The Social Ecology of Resilience, edited by Michael Ungar, pp. 47–51. New York: Springer.10.1007/978-1-4614-0586-3_4Search in Google Scholar
Luthar, Suniya S., Dante Cicchetti, and Bronwyn Becker. 2000. “The Construct of Resilience: A Critical Evaluation and Guidelines for Future Work.” Child Development 71(3): 543–562.10.1111/1467-8624.00164Search in Google Scholar
Lyons, Judith A. 1991. “Strategies for Assessing the Potential for Positive Adjustment Following Trauma.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 4 (1): 93–111.10.1002/jts.2490040108Search in Google Scholar
MacAskill, Kristen, and Peter Guthrie. 2015. “A Hierarchy of Measures for Infrastructure Resilience – Learning from Post-Disaster Reconstruction in Christchurch, New Zealand.” Civil Engineering and Environmental Systems 32 (1–2): 130–142.10.1080/10286608.2015.1022728Search in Google Scholar
Madni, Azad M., and Scott Jackson. 2009. “Towards a Conceptual Framework for Resilience Engineering.” IEEE Systems Journal 3(2): 181–191.10.1109/JSYST.2009.2017397Search in Google Scholar
Martin-Breen, Patrick, and J. Marty Anderies. 2011. Resilience: A Literature Review. The Rockefeller. Foundation http://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/handle/123456789/3692.Search in Google Scholar
Masten, Ann S. 2001 . “Ordinary Magic: Resilience Processes in Development.” American Psychologist 56 (3): 227– 238.10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.227Search in Google Scholar
Masten, Ann S. 2007 . “Resilience in Developing Systems: Progress and Promise as the Fourth Wave Rises.” Development and Psychopathology 19 (3): 921.10.1017/S0954579407000442Search in Google Scholar
Masten, Ann S. 2014a. “A Short List of Implicated Protective Systems.” In Ordinary Magic. New York: Guilford Press.Search in Google Scholar
Masten, Ann S. 2014b . “Global Perspectives on Resilience in Children and Youth.” Child Development 85 (1): 6– 20.10.1111/cdev.12205Search in Google Scholar
Masten, Ann S., and Jelena Obradovic. 2010. “Disaster Preparation and Recovery: Lessons From Research on Resilience in Human Development.” Ecology and Society 13(1): 9.10.5751/ES-02282-130109Search in Google Scholar
Masten, Ann S., and Margaret O'Dougherty Wright. 2010. “Resilience over the Lifespan.” In Hanbook of Adult Resilience, edited by John Reich, Alex J. Zautra, and John Stuart Hall, pp. 213–237. New York: Guilford Press.Search in Google Scholar
Masten, Ann S., Karin Best, and Norman Garmezy. 1990. “Resilience and Development: Contributions from the Study of Children Who Overcome Adversity.” Development and Psychopathology 2 (4): 425–444.10.1017/S0954579400005812Search in Google Scholar
Mathias, Jean-Denis, Susan Clark, Nuri Onat, and Thomas Seager. 2018. “An Integrated Dynamical Modeling Perspective for Infrastructure Resilience.” Infrastructures 3 (11): 1–26.10.3390/infrastructures3020011Search in Google Scholar
Mayer, J., and M. Faber. 2010. “Personal Intelligence and Resilience: Recovery in the Shadow of Broken Connections.” In Handbook of Adult Resilience, edited by John W. Reich, Alex J. Zautra, and John Stuart Hall, pp. 94–111. New York: The Guilford Press.Search in Google Scholar
Mischel, Walter, and Yuichi Shoda. 1995. “A Cognitive-Affective System Theory of Personality: Reconceptualizing Situations, Dispositions, Dynamics, and Invariance in Personality Structure.” Psychological Review 102 (2): 246–268.10.1037/0033-295X.102.2.246Search in Google Scholar
Mu, Dongyan, Thomas P. Seager, P. Suresh C. Rao, Jeryang Park, and Fu Zhao. 2011. “A Resilience Perspective on Biofuel Production.” Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management 7 (3): 348–359.10.1002/ieam.165Search in Google Scholar
Murphy, S. A., L. Clark Johnson, and Janet Lohan. 2003. “Finding Meaning in a Child’s Violent Death: A Five-Year Prospective Analysis of Parents’ Personal Narratives and Empirical Data.” Death Studies 27: 381–404.10.1080/07481180302879Search in Google Scholar
Noltemeyer, Amity L., and Kevin R. Bush. 2013. “Adversity and Resilience: A Synthesis of International Research.” School Psychology International 34 (5): 474–487.10.1177/0143034312472758Search in Google Scholar
NTSB. 2010. Miracle on the Hudson, Accident Report. National Transportation Safety Board: Washington, D.C.Search in Google Scholar
Olsson, Craig, Lyndal Bond, Jane M. Burns, Dianne A. Vella-Brodrick, and Susan M. Sawyer. 2003. “Adolescent Resilience: A Concept Analysis.” Journal of Adolescence 26 (1): 1–11.10.1016/S0140-1971(02)00118-5Search in Google Scholar
Ong, Anthony D., Lisa M. Edwards, and C. S. Bergeman. 2006. “Hope as a Source of Resilience in Later Adulthood.” Personality and Individual Differences 41 (7): 1263–1273.10.1016/j.paid.2006.03.028Search in Google Scholar
Ong, Anthony D., C. S. Bergeman, and Sy-Miin Chow. 2010. “Positive Emotions as a Basic Building Block of Resilience in Adulthood.” In Handbook of Adult Resilience, pp. 81–93. New York: The Guilford Press.Search in Google Scholar
Pargament, Kenneth I., and Jeremy Cummings. 2010. “Anchored by Faith: Religion as a Resilience Factor.” In Handbook of Adult Resilience, edited by John W. Reich, Alex J. Zautra, and John Stuart Hall, pp. 193–210. New York: Guilford Press.Search in Google Scholar
Paries, Jean 2011. “Lessons from the Hudson.” In Resilience Engineering in Practice: A Guidebook, edited by Erik Hollnagel, Jean Paries, David D. Woods, and John Wreathall, pp. 9–27. Vermont: Ashgate.10.1201/9781317065265-2Search in Google Scholar
Park, Crystal L., and Susan Folkman. 1997. “Meaning in the Context of Stress and Coping.” Review of General Psychology 1 (2): 115–144.10.1037/1089-2680.1.2.115Search in Google Scholar
Park, J., T. Seager, P. Rao, M. Convertino, and I. Linkov. 2013. “Integrating Risk and Resilience Approaches to Catastrophe Management in Engineering Systems.” Risk Analysis 33 (3): 356–367.10.1111/j.1539-6924.2012.01885.xSearch in Google Scholar
Pendall, Rolf, Kathryn A. Foster, and Margaret Cowell. 2009. “Resilience and Regions: Building Understanding of the Metaphor.” Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and Society 3(1): 71–84.10.1093/cjres/rsp028Search in Google Scholar
Perrow, Charles. 2011. Normal Accidents: Living with High-Risk Technologies. New Jersy: Princeton University Press.10.2307/j.ctt7srgfSearch in Google Scholar
Rankin, Amy, Jonas Lundberg, Rogier Woltjer, Carl Rollenhagen, and Erik Hollnagel. 2013. “Resilience in Everyday Operations: A Framework for Analyzing Adaptations in High-Risk Work.” Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making 8 (1): 78–97.10.1177/1555343413498753Search in Google Scholar
Reich, John W., Alex J. Zautra, and John Stuart Hall. 2010. Handbook of Adult Resilience. New York: The Guilford Press.Search in Google Scholar
Reid, Richard, and Linda Courtenay Botterill. 2013. “The Multiple Meanings of ‘Resilience’: An Overview of the Literature.” Australian Journal of Public Administration 72 (1): 31–40.10.1111/1467-8500.12009Search in Google Scholar
Resnick, Barbara A., and Pia L. Inguito. 2011. “The Resilience Scale: Psychometric Properties and Clinical Applicability in Older Adults.” Archives of Psychiatric Nursing 25 (1): 11–20.10.1016/j.apnu.2010.05.001Search in Google Scholar
Richardson, Glenn E. 2002. “The Metatheory of Resilience and Resiliency.” Journal of Clinical Psychology 58 (3): 307–321.10.1002/jclp.10020Search in Google Scholar
Righi, Angela Weber, Tarcisio Abreu Saurin, and Priscila Wachs. 2015. “A Systematic Literature Review of Resilience Engineering: Research Areas and a Research Agenda Proposal.” Reliability Engineering & System Safety 141: 142–152.10.1016/j.ress.2015.03.007Search in Google Scholar
Rutter, Michael. 1985. “Resilience in the Face of Adversity. Protective Factors and Resistance to Psychiatric Disorder.” The British Journal of Psychiatry 147(6): 598–611.10.1192/bjp.147.6.598Search in Google Scholar
Rutter, Michael. 1987. “Psychosocial Resilience and Protective Mechanisms.” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 57(3): 316–331.10.1017/CBO9780511752872.013Search in Google Scholar
Rutter, Michael. 1993 . “Resilience : Some Conceptual.” Journal of Adolecent Health 14: 626– 631.10.1016/1054-139X(93)90196-VSearch in Google Scholar
Sameroff, Arnold. 2010. “A Unified Theory of Development: A Dialectic Integration of Nature and Nurture.” Child Development 81 (1): 6–22.10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01378.xSearch in Google Scholar
Schöttl, Florian, and Udo Lindemann. 2015. “Quantifying the Complexity of Socio-Technical Systems-A Generic, Interdisciplinary Approach.” Procedia Computer Science 44 (C): 1–10.10.1016/j.procs.2015.03.019Search in Google Scholar
Sinclair, Vaughn G., and Kenneth A. Wallston. 2004. “The Development and Psychometric Evaluation of the Brief Resilient Coping Scale.” Assessment 11 (1): 94–101.10.1177/1073191103258144Search in Google Scholar
Skodol, Andrew E. 2010. “The Resilient Personality.” In Handbook of Adult Resilience, pp. 112– 125. New York: The Guilford Press.Search in Google Scholar
Smith, Gerrilyn. 1999 . “Resilience Concepts and Findings : Implications for Family Therapy.” Journal of Family Therapy 21: 119– 144.10.1111/1467-6427.00110Search in Google Scholar
Stanton, Annette L., Anita Parsa, and Jennifer L. Austenfeld. 2002. “The Adaptive Potential of Coping through Emotional Approach.” In Handbook of Positive Psychology, pp. 148–158.Search in Google Scholar
Stokols, Daniel, Raul Perez Lejano, and John Hipp. 2013. “Enhancing the Resilience of Human – Environment Systems: A Social Ecological Perspective.” Ecology and Society 18 (1): 7.Search in Google Scholar
Sullenberger, Chesley, Jeffery Zaslow, and Michael McConnohie. 2009. Highest Duty: My Search for What Really Matters. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc.Search in Google Scholar
Tedeschi, R. G., and L. G. Calhoun. 2004. “Posttraumatic Growth: Conceptual Foundations and Empirical Evidence.” Psychological Inquiry 15 (1): 1–18.10.1207/s15327965pli1501_01Search in Google Scholar
The White House. 2011. Presidential Policy Directive-8 : National Preparedness. Washington, DC.Search in Google Scholar
The White House. 2013. Presidential Policy Directive-21: Critical Infrastructure Security and Resilience. Washington, DC.Search in Google Scholar
Thomas, John E., Daniel A. Eisenberg, and Thomas P. Seager. 2018. “Holistic Infrastructure Resilience Research Requires Multiple Perspectives, Not Just Multiple Disciplines.” Infrastructures 3(3): 30.10.3390/infrastructures3030030Search in Google Scholar
Tian, Jin, Juyi Wu, Qibo Yang, and Tingdi Zhao. 2016. “FRAMA: A Safety Assessment Approach Based on Functional Resonance Analysis Method.” Safety Science 85: 41–52.10.1016/j.ssci.2016.01.002Search in Google Scholar
Ungar, Michael. 2006 . “Resilience across Cultures.” British Journal of Social Work 38 (2): 218– 235.10.1093/bjsw/bcl343Search in Google Scholar
Ungar, Michael. 2012. The Social Ecology of Resilience. New York: Springer US . DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-0586-3.Search in Google Scholar
Ungar, M., M. Ghazinour, and Jörg Richter. 2013. “Annual Research Review: What Is Resilience within the Social Ecology of Human Development?” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines 54 (4): 348–366.10.1111/jcpp.12025Search in Google Scholar
Von Bertalanffy, L. 1968. General Systems Theory. New York: G. Braziller.Search in Google Scholar
Werner, Emmy E. 2014. “Resilience in Development All Use Subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Resilience in Development.” Association for Psychological Science 4 (3): 81–85.Search in Google Scholar
Williams, Robin, and David Edge. 1996. “The Social Shaping of Technology.” Research Policy 25: 865–899.10.1016/0048-7333(96)00885-2Search in Google Scholar
Woods, David. 2006. “Essential Characteristics of Resilience.” In Resilience Engineering Concepts and Precepts, edited by Erik Hollnagel, David D. Woods, and Nancy Leveson. Vermont: Ashgate.Search in Google Scholar
Woods, David. 2015. “Four Concepts for Resilience and the Implications for the Future of Resilience Engineering.” Reliability Engineering and System Safety 141: 5–9.10.1016/j.ress.2015.03.018Search in Google Scholar
Woods, David D., and Matthieu Branlat. 2011. “Basic Patterns in How Adaptive Systems Fail.” In Resilience Engineering in Practice: A Guidebook, edited by Erik Hollnagel, Jean Paries, David D. Woods, and John Wreathall, pp. 127–144. Vermont: Ashgate.10.1201/9781317065265-10Search in Google Scholar
Wood, Matthew, Emily Wells, Glenn Rice, and Igor Linkov. 2018. Quantifying and Mapping Resilience within Large Organizations. Omega.10.1016/j.omega.2018.08.012Search in Google Scholar
Wu, Paul Pao-Yen, Clinton Fookes, Jegar Pitchforth, and K. Mengersen. 2015. “A Framework for Model Integration and Holistic Modelling of Socio-Technical Systems.” Decision Support Systems 71: 14–27.10.1016/j.dss.2015.01.006Search in Google Scholar
©2019 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
