Abstract
This study takes Functional Discourse Grammar (FDG) as its theoretical framework, and applies to the phenomena under study the FDG terminology, which may differ from what many readers are used to. Esperanto has an agglutinating morphology. Its words are built on stems which are associated with contentive lexemes in a flexible system of parts of speech. The language has an elaborate stock of lexically dependent morphemes (roots in FDG) for lexeme building. Many basic words are stem-root combinations in Esperanto. The roots applied in them also appear in complex structures, and can be reordered and interchanged easily to produce different complex stems. For this reason, derivation is taken to be hosted in the lexicon. The lexicon must contain a highly developed procedural knowledge component, of which the derivation system is assumed to be a part. Some of the suffixable roots have homonymous variants that define grammatical processes. The combinatorial freedom of roots provides for a lexical expansion tool which is easy to handle, but not without complications. Problematic is the (in)transitivity of lexemes destined to verbal encoding, when applied in an environment that is not naturally theirs. This phenomenon is known to be an important source of mistakes among speakers of the language. It is argued that the lexicon of Esperanto speakers contains paired transitive and intransitive representations of the most current lexemes of this category. The study aims at providing support to better understand the mechanisms at work inside the lexicon and at the interface between the lexicon and the grammar of agglutinating languages.
Acknowledgments
I am grateful to the participants of the FDG Workshop in Vienna (September 2013), in particular to Inge Genee and Evelien Keizer, and to two anonymous reviewers of the manuscript of this article for their highly appreciated comments, suggestions and correction proposals.
References
Auld, William. 1969. Humoroj [Moods]. La Laguna de Tenerife: Stafeto.Search in Google Scholar
García Velasco, Daniel & Evelien Keizer. 2014. Derivational morphology in Functional Discourse Grammar. In María de los Ángeles Gómez González, Francisco José Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez & Francisco Gonzálvez-García (eds.), Theory and practice in functional-cognitive space, 151–176. Amsterdam & Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins.10.1075/sfsl.68.07velSearch in Google Scholar
Hengeveld, Kees & Lachlan Mackenzie 2008. Functional discourse grammar: A typologically-based theory of language structure. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199278107.001.0001Search in Google Scholar
Jansen, Wim. 2012. Pri kelkaj malfacilaĵoj en Esperanto [Discussing some difficulties in Esperanto]. Internacia Pedagogia Revuo [International Pedagogical Journal] 42(12/2). 25–30.Search in Google Scholar
Jansen, Wim. 2013. Esperanto parts of speech in functional discourse grammar. Linguistics 51(3). 611–652.10.1515/ling-2013-0022Search in Google Scholar
Kalocsay, Kálmán & Gaston Waringhien. 1985. Plena Analiza Gramatiko de Esperanto [Complete analytical grammar of Esperanto]. Rotterdam: Universal Esperanto Association.Search in Google Scholar
Levelt, Willem. 1991 [1989]. Speaking: From intention to articulation, 2nd edn. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.10.7551/mitpress/6393.001.0001Search in Google Scholar
Lindstedt, Jouko. 2006. Native Esperanto as a test case for natural language. SKY Journal of Linguistics 19. 47–55.Search in Google Scholar
Lindstedt, Jouko. 2014. Kaŝita regulo de la Esperanta gramatiko [A hidden rule in the Esperanto grammar]. Magdeburga folio 125(15). 1–2.Search in Google Scholar
Miner, Ken. 2010. La neebleco de priesperanta lingvoscienco [The impossibility of a language science about Esperanto]. In Detlev Blanke & Ulrich Lins (eds.), La arto labori kune. Festlibro por Humphrey Tonkin [The art of working together. Festschrift for Humphrey Tonkin], 259–270. Rotterdam: Universal Esperanto Association.Search in Google Scholar
Manders, Willem. 1947. Vijf Kunsttalen [Five artificial languages]. Purmerend: Muusses.Search in Google Scholar
Neves, Gonçalo. 2011. Historia Vortaro de Esperanto 1887–1888 [Historical dictionary of Esperanto 1887–1888]. Bad Bellingen: Iltis.Search in Google Scholar
Philippe, Benoît. 1991. Sprachwandel bei einer Plansprache am Beispiel des Esperanto. Konstanz: Hartung-Gorre.Search in Google Scholar
Plag, Ingo. 2003. Word formation in English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511841323Search in Google Scholar
Schubert, Klaus. 1989. An unplanned development in planned languages. In Klaus Schubert (ed.), Interlinguistics: Aspects of the science of planned languages (Trends in Linguistics, Studies and Monographs 42), 249–274. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.10.1515/9783110886115Search in Google Scholar
Waringhien, Gaston (chief ed.). Plena Ilustrita Vortaro de Esperanto [Complete illustrated Esperanto dictionary]. 2005. Paris: Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda.Search in Google Scholar
Wennergren, Bertilo. 2005. Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko [Complete handbook of the Esperanto grammar]. El Cerrito, CA: ELNA. http://bertilow.com/pmeg/ (accessed 20 July 2015).Search in Google Scholar
Zamenhof, Lejzer. 1963 [1905]. Fundamento de Esperanto [Foundations of Esperanto], 9th edn. Marmande: E.F.E.Search in Google Scholar
Zamenhof, Lejzer. 2004 [1887]. Международный языкъ. Предисловіе и полный учебникъ [The international language. Preface and complete textbook]. Photographically reproduced edn. Moscow: Impeto.Search in Google Scholar
Appendix 1. Input list of prefixable itemsa
| Prefix | Early description (by Zamenhof), reference works |
| bo- | Early description: “relation by marriage” (Z: 146). |
| Reference works: K&W: 504, PIV: 162, We: 588. | |
| dis- | Early description: “has the same force as the English dis” (Z: 154). |
| Reference works: K&W: 479, PIV: 244, We: 590. | |
| ek- | Early description: “denotes sudden or momentary action” (Z: 156). |
| Reference works: K&W: 479, PIV: 270, We: 591. | |
| eks- | Early description: “ex-, late” (Z: 157). |
| Reference works: K&W: 505, PIV: 272, We: 592. | |
| ge- | Early description: “of both sexes” (Z: 165). |
| Reference works: K&W: 505, PIV: 386, We: 592. | |
| mal- | Early description: “denotes opposites” (Z: 189). |
| Reference works: K&W: 505, PIV: 704, We: 594. | |
| mis- | Early description: non-existent. |
| Reference works: K&W: 481, PIV: 747, We: 597. | |
| pra- | Early description: “primordial” (Z: 206). |
| Reference works: K&W: 508, PIV: 908, We: 598. | |
| re- | Early description: “again, back” (Z: 210). |
| Reference works: K&W: 482, PIV: 955, We: 599. |
Remark: In contrast with We: 589, the prefixed item ĉef- is not included in this list. The source document Z: 149 translates it as the noun ‘chief’, quite different from the way Z illustrates entries like dis- in combination with different stems they can apply to. K&W: 483 lists ĉef- under their so-called prefixoids, i. e., in FDG terms stems which behave like a root when applied as the first element in a combination with another stem. In such applications, ĉef- does not mean ‘boss’ or ‘chief’, but something like ‘main, principal’. Discussing this in more detail would go far beyond the scope of this article. Because Z: 149 translates ĉef as a noun, and does not treat it as a root, I have not included it in my list.
Appendix 2. Input list of suffixable itemsb
| Suffix | Early description (by Zamenhof), reference works |
| -aĉ | Early description: non-existent. |
| Reference works: K&W: 500, PIV: 46, We: 540. | |
| -ad | Early description: “denotes duration of action” (Z: 139). |
| Reference works: K&W: 438,467; PIV: 46, We: 540. | |
| -aĵ | Early description: “made from or possessing the quality of” (Z: 140). |
| Reference works: K&W: 441, PIV: 58, We: 542. | |
| -an | Early description: “inhabitant, member” (Z: 141). |
| Reference works: K&W: 450, PIV: 83, We: 544. | |
| -ar | Early description: “a collection of objects” (Z: 143). |
| Reference works: K&W: 451, PIV: 102, We: 545. | |
| -ebl | Early description: “able, possible” (Z: 155). |
| Reference works: K&W: 464, PIV: 263, We: 546. | |
| -ec | Early description: “denotes qualities” (Z: 156). |
| Reference works: K&W: 444, PIV: 264, We: 548. | |
| -eg | Early description: “denotes increase of degree” (Z: 156). |
| Reference works: K&W: 500, PIV: 268, We: 551. | |
| -ej | Early description: “place where an action occurs” (Z: 156). |
| Reference works: K&W: 451, PIV: 269, We: 552. | |
| -em | Early description: “inclined to” (Z: 158). |
| Reference works: K&W: 464, PIV: 283–284, We: 554. | |
| -end | Early description: non-existent. |
| Reference works: K&W: 465, PIV: 288, We: 556. | |
| -er | Early description: “one of many objects of the same kind” (Z: 158). |
| Reference works: K&W: 452, PIV: 294, We: 556. | |
| -estr | Early description: “chief, boss” (Z: 159). |
| Reference works: K&W: 452, PIV: 301–302, We: 557. | |
| -et | Early description: “denotes diminution of degree” (Z: 159). |
| Reference works: K&W: 501, PIV: 302, We: 557, 558. | |
| -id | Early description: “descendant, young one” (Z: 169). |
| Reference works: K&W: 453, PIV: 457, We: 559. | |
| -ig | Early description: “to cause to be” (Z: 170). |
| Reference works: K&W: 468, PIV: 459–461, We: 560. | |
| -iĝ | Early description: “to become” (Z: 170). |
| Reference works: K&W: 472, PIV: 461–462, We: 564. | |
| -il | Early description: “instrument” (Z: 170). |
| Reference works: K&W: 453, PIV: 463, We: 568. | |
| -in | Early description: “ending of feminine words” (Z: 170). |
| Reference works: K&W: 454, PIV: 468, We: 571. | |
| -ind | Early description: “worth” (Z: 171). |
| Reference works: K&W: 466, PIV: 469, We: 572. | |
| -ing | Early description: “holder for” (Z: 171). |
| Reference works: K&W: 456, PIV: 475, We: 573. | |
| -ism | Early description: non-existent. |
| Reference works: K&W: 456, PIV: 490, We: 574. | |
| -ist | Early description: “person occupied with” (Z: 172). |
| Reference works: K&W: 457, PIV: 491, We: 575. | |
| -uj | Early description: “filled with” (Z: 227). |
| Reference works: K&W: 458, PIV: 1197, We: 582. | |
| -ul | Early description: “person noted for…” (Z: 227). |
| Reference works: K&W: 448, PIV: 1197–1198, We: 583. | |
| -um | Early description: “this syllable has no fixed meaning” (Z: 227). |
| Reference works: K&W: 501, PIV: 1198–1199, We: 586. |
Appendix 3. List of abbreviations and glosses used in the text (except for the 39 glosses of the lexeme-building rules listed and explained in Tables 2 and 3)
- Acc
Accusative
- Adj
Adjective
- Adv
Adverb
- Cond
Conditional
- D
Dependent
- Detr
Detransitivizer
- FDG
Functional Discourse Grammar
- Fut
Future tense
- H
Head
- Imp
Imperative
- Infl
Inflection
- Irr
Irrealis
- M
Modifier
- ML
Morphosyntactic Level
- N
1. Noun; 2. Nucleus
- O
Object
- PL
Phonological Level
- Pl
Plural
- Prs
Present tense
- Prop
Property
- Pst
Past tense
- PW
Phonological word
- r
Root
- RL
Representational Level
- S
1. Stem; 2. Subject
- Tr
Transitivizer
- V
Verb
- λ
Lexeme-building rule
- Semantic categories applicable to Esperanto, in alphabetical order:
- e
Second-order Entity, State-of-Affairs
- f
Dependent Property
- ins
Instrument
- l
Location
- m
Manner
- p
Third-order Entity, Abstraction
- q
Quantity
- r
Reason
- t
Time
- x
First-order Entity, Individual
©2016 by De Gruyter Mouton
