Abstract
This article investigates encounters between the two overall language resources – standard vs. non-standard and regional varieties – in two linguistic minority communities in Denmark. Concentrating on Turkish and Farsi mother tongue classes, the study departs from two interviews with the parents of mother tongue students. Additional ethnographic evidence from the respective mother tongue classes show when and how the two overall varieties of the respective languages are reacted to and valorized among the study participants. Two main issues are explored in this context: first, language ideological paradigms of dominance – anonymity and authenticity – and, second, the extension and expansion of language users’ ideologies regarding registers of language. The article concludes that during the encounters and discussions concerning ideological views supporting either of the overall language resources, a form for authority exists and becomes oriented to in line with the history of language policy of the countries of origin.
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my gratitude to Vally Lytra, Lotte Thissen, Anne Holmen, Martha Sif Karrebæk, Cem Avus, and Hulya Baysal for all their valuable comments and discussions on earlier drafts of this paper. I would also like to thank the fieldworkers and participants involved in the SuperMOTE project at the University of Copenhagen.
References
Absillis, Kevin & Jürgen Jaspers 2016. Beware of the weeds: Understanding Flemish linguistic purism as a utopian discourse. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 2016(242). 1–24. doi:10.1515/IJSL-2016-0031 (accessed May 2016).Search in Google Scholar
Agha, Asif. 2003. The social life of cultural value. Language and Communication 23(3/4). 231–273.10.1016/S0271-5309(03)00012-0Search in Google Scholar
Agha, Asif. 2006 [2004]. Registers of language. In Alessandro Duranti (ed.), A Companion to Linguistic Anthropology, 23–45. Oxford: Blackwell.10.1002/9780470996522.ch2Search in Google Scholar
Agha, Asif. 2007. Language and social relations. Studies in the social and cultural foundations of language. Cambridge, UK & New York: Cambridge University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Agha, Asif & Frog. 2015. An introduction to registers of communication. In Asif Agha & Frog (eds.), Registers of communication, 13–23. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society.10.2307/j.ctvggx2qk.5Search in Google Scholar
Blackledge, Adrian & Angela Creese 2010. Multilingualism: A critical perspective (Advances in Sociolinguistics). London: Continuum.Search in Google Scholar
Blackledge, Adrian, Angela Creese & Jaspreet Kaur Takhi 2014. Voice, register and social position. Multilingua 33(5–6). 485–504.10.1515/multi-2014-0025Search in Google Scholar
Blommaert, Jan. 2010. The sociolinguistics of globalization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511845307Search in Google Scholar
Costa, James. 2015. Can schools dispense with Standard language? Some unintended consequences of introducing Scots in a Scottish primary school. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology 25(1). 25–42.10.1111/jola.12069Search in Google Scholar
Coupland, Nikolas. 2003. Introduction: Sociolinguistics and globalisation. Journal of Sociolinguistics 7(4). 465–472.10.1111/j.1467-9841.2003.00237.xSearch in Google Scholar
Daugaard, Line Møller. 2015. Sproglig praksis i og omkring modersmålsundervisning. En lingvistisk etnografisk undersøgelse [Linguistic practices in and around mother tongue teaching. A linguistic ethnographic case study of language teaching across the curriculum in a Danish primary school]. Aarhus: Aarhus University.Search in Google Scholar
Demirci, Mahide. 1998. Gender and Age-based Variation in the Perception of Turkish Dialects.Language Awareness 7(4). 206–222. doi:10.1080/09658419808667110 (accessed May 2016).Search in Google Scholar
Demirci, Mahide & Brian Kleiner 1999. The perception of Turkish dialects. In Dennis R. Preston (ed.), Handbook of perceptual dialectology, vol. 1, 263–281. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.10.1075/z.hpd1.25demSearch in Google Scholar
Elling, Rasmus C. 2013. Minorities in Iran, nationalism and ethnicity after Khomeini. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Search in Google Scholar
Fishman, Joshua A. 2001. 300-plus years of heritage language education in the United States. In Joy Kreeft Peyton, Donald A. Ranard & Scott McGinnis (eds.), Heritage languages in America: Preserving a national resource, 81–95. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.Search in Google Scholar
Fuat, Keyman E. & Şuhnaz Yilmaz 2006. Modernity and nationalism: Turkey and Iran in comparative perspective. In Gerard Delanty & Krishan Kumar (eds.), The SAGE handbook of nations and nationalism, 425–437. London: Sage Publications Ltd.10.4135/9781848608061.n36Search in Google Scholar
García-Sánchez, Inmaculada M. 2011. Language socialization and exclusion. In Alessandro Duranti, Elinor Ochs & Bambi B. Schieffelin (eds.), The handbook of language socialization, 391–419. Malden- MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.10.1002/9781444342901.ch17Search in Google Scholar
Heritage, John. 1984. Garfinkel and ethnomethodology. Cambridge: Polity Press.Search in Google Scholar
Hillmann, Michael C. 1981. Language and social distinctions in Iran. In Michael E. Bonine & Nikki R. Keddie (eds.), Modern Iran. The dialects of continuity and change, 327–340. New York: State University of New York Press.Search in Google Scholar
Holmen, Anne & Jens N. Jørgensen 1998. Indledning [Introduction]. In Anne Holmen & Jens N. Jørgensen (eds.), Modersmålsundervisning I mindretalssprog I Danmark. Københavnsstudier i tosprogethed [Mother tongue education in minority languages in Denmark] (Copenhagen Studies in Bilingualism 29). Copenhagen: Denmark’s teachers high school.Search in Google Scholar
Irvine, Judith T. & Susan Gal 2000. Language ideology and linguistic differentiation. In Paul Kroskrity (ed.), Regimes of language: Ideologies, politics and identities, 35–84. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press.Search in Google Scholar
Jaffe, Alexandra. 2009. Introduction: The sociolinguistics of stance. In Alexandra Jaffe (ed.), Stance: Sociolinguistic perspectives, 3–28. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195331646.001.0001Search in Google Scholar
Jernudd, Björn H. 1989. The texture of language purism: An introduction. In Björn Jernoudd & Michael J. Shapiro (eds.), The politics of language purism, 1–20. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.10.1515/9783110868371Search in Google Scholar
Karimi-Hakkâk, Ahmad. 2005. An introduction to linguistic purism. In Nils Langer & Winifred V. Davies (eds.), Linguistic purism in the Germanic languages, 81–104. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.Search in Google Scholar
Karrebæk, Martha S. 2016. Arabs, Arabic and urban languaging: Polycentricity and incipient enregisterment among primary school children in Copenhagen. In Lian Malai Madsen, Martha S. Karrebæk & Janus Spindler Møller (eds.), Everyday languaging, 19–47. Berlin/Boston: Walter de Gruyter, Inc.10.1515/9781614514800-002Search in Google Scholar
Karrebæk, Martha S. & Narges Ghandchi 2015. ‘Pure’ Farsi and political sensitivities: Language and Ideologies in Farsi complementary Language Classrooms in Denmark. Journal of Sociolinguistics 19(1). 62–90.10.1111/josl.12106Search in Google Scholar
Karrebæk, Martha S., Ulla Lundqvist, Narges Ghandchi & Lamies Nassri 2013. Mother tongue education for linguistic minority students in the super-diverse metropolis of Copenhagen: Organizing and structuring the classrooms (Project Report 1). Copenhagen: University of Copenhagen.Search in Google Scholar
Keyman, Fuat E. & Şuhnaz Yilmaz 2006. Modernity and Nationalism: Turkey and Iran in Comparative Perspective. In Gerard Delanty & Krishan Kumar (eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Nations and Nationalism, 425–437. London: Sage Publications Ltd.10.4135/9781848608061.n36Search in Google Scholar
Kristjánsdóttir, Bergthóra S. & Lene Timm 2007. Tvetunget uddannelsespolitik. Dokumentation af etnisk ulighed i folkeskolen [Double-tongued education policy – Evidence of ethnic inequality in Danish public school]. Frederiksberg: Nyt fra Samfundsvidenskaberne.Search in Google Scholar
Kroskrity, Paul V. 2000. Regimes of language. In Paul Kroskrity (ed.), Regimes of Language: Ideologies, Politics and Identities, 1–34. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press.Search in Google Scholar
Langer, Nils & Winifred V. Davies (eds.). 2005. Linguistic purism in the Germanic languages. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter.10.1515/9783110901351Search in Google Scholar
Lytra, Vally. 2012. Discursive construction of language and identity: Parents’ competing perspectives in London Turkish complementary schools. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 33(1). 85–100.10.1080/01434632.2011.638076Search in Google Scholar
Lytra, Vally. 2013. From kebapçı to professional: The commodification of language discourse and social mobility in Turkish complementary schools in the UK. In Alexandre Duchêne, Melissa Moyer & Celia Roberts (eds.), Language, migration and social inequalities: A critical sociolinguistic perspective on institutions and work, 147–167. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Search in Google Scholar
Lytra, Vally. 2015. Language practices and language ideologies among Turkish-speaking young people in Athens and London”. In Jacomine Nortier & Bente A. Svendsen (eds.), Language, Youth and Identity in the 21st Century. Linguistic Practices across Urban Spaces, 183–204. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9781139061896.013Search in Google Scholar
Maegaard, Marie, Torben J. Jensen, Tore Kristiansen & Jens N. Jørgensen 2013. Diffusion of language change: Accommodation to a moving target. Journal of Sociolinguistics 17(1). 3–36.10.1111/josl.12002Search in Google Scholar
Makoni, Sinfree & Alastair Pennycook 2007. Disinventing and reconstituting languages. In Sinfree Makoni & Alastair Pennycook (eds.), Disinventing and reconstituting languages, 1–41. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.10.21832/9781853599255-003Search in Google Scholar
Maybin, Janet & Karin Tusting 2011. Linguistic ethnography. In James Simpson (ed.), The Routledge handbook of applied linguistics, 515–528. London: Routledge.Search in Google Scholar
Mehan, Hugh. 1984. Language and Schooling 57(July). 174–183.10.2307/2112601Search in Google Scholar
Paul, Ludwig. 2010. Iranian Language Reform in the Twentieth Century: Did the First Farhangistân (1935-40) succeed? Journal of Persianate Studies 3. 78–103.10.1163/187471610X505960Search in Google Scholar
Rampton, Ben, Janet Maybin & Celia Roberts 2015. Methodological foundations in linguistic ethnography. In Julia Snell, Sara Shaw & Fiona Copland (eds.), Linguistic ethnography: Interdisciplinary explorations, 14–50. London: Palgrave Macmillan.10.1057/9781137035035_2Search in Google Scholar
Røynland, Unn. 2009. Dialects in Norway: Catching up with the rest of Europe? International Journal of the Sociology of Language 196/197. 7–31. doi:10.1515/IJSL.2009.015 (accessed May 2016).Search in Google Scholar
Saeed, John I. 1999. Semantics. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.Search in Google Scholar
Salö, Linus, Natalia Ganuz, Christina Hedman & Martha Sif Karrebæk under review. Mother tongue instruction in Sweden and Denmark. Language policy, cross-field effects, and linguistic exchange rates.Search in Google Scholar
Spolsky, Bernard. 2005. Language policy. In James Cohen, Kara T. McAlister, Kellie Rolstad & Jeff MacSwan (eds.), ISB4: Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism, 2152–2164. USA, MA: Cascadilla Press.Search in Google Scholar
Spolsky, Bernard. 2009. Language management. New York: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511626470Search in Google Scholar
Spolsky, Bernard. 2012. What is language policy? In Bernard Spolsky (ed.), The cambridge handbook of language policy, 3–15. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511979026.003 (accessed July 2016).Search in Google Scholar
Statistikbanken.dk. 2016. (accessed December 2015).Search in Google Scholar
Thomas, George. 1991. Linguistic purism. London: Longman.Search in Google Scholar
Timm, Lene. 2008. Danmark har ondt i modersmålet. En kortlægning af kommunernes modersmålsundervisning i skoleåret 2007/08 [Denmark is in pain in the mother tongue. A survey of the (Danish) municipalities’ mother tongue education during the school year 2007-2008]. Copenhagen: Dokumentations- og Rådgivningscentret for racediskrimination [Documentation and Counseling Center for Race Discrimination].Search in Google Scholar
Timm, Lene & Bergthóra Kristjánsdóttir. 2011. Uhørte stemmer. Sproglige minoritetsforældre og samarbejde med skolen [Unheard voices. Language minority parents and their co-operation with school]. Aarhus: VIA Systime.Search in Google Scholar
Ünal-Logacev, Ö., S. Fuchs & M. Zygis. 2014. Soft ‘g’ in Turkish: Evidence for sound change in progress. Proceeding of the Xth ISSP (Working paper 124). Cologne.Search in Google Scholar
Valdés, Guadalupe. 2001. Heritage language students: Profiles and possibilities. In J. K. Peyton, D. A. Ranard & S. McGinnis (eds.), Heritage languages in America: Presenting a national resource, 37–80. Washington DC & McHenry, IL: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.Search in Google Scholar
Weber, Jean-Jacques & Kristine Horner. 2012. Introducing multilingualism: A Social Approach. London & New York: Routledge.Search in Google Scholar
Woolard, Kathryn A. 2008. Language and Identity Choice in Catalonia: The Interplay of Contrasting Ideologies of Linguistic Authority. In Kirsten Süselbeck, Ulrike Mühlschlegel & Peter Masson (eds.), Lengua, Nación e Identidad. La regulación del plurilingüismo en España y América Latina, 303–323. Madrid: Iberoamericana.Search in Google Scholar
© 2018 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston