The Phenomena La Hoguette and Limburg – Technological Aspects

2.1 Definition of La Hoguette and Limburg Pottery

La Hoguette pottery was defined by Christian Jeunesse in 1986 (Jeunesse, 1986, 1987). Limburg pottery was defined even earlier by Pieter Modderman and described by Claude Constantin (Constantin, 1985; Modderman, 1970). The defining features for both were oxidizing firing, bone temper, and pointed-based vessels; all these properties differ from the LBK of early periods. The double-dotted decoration of La Hoguette compared to the stroke decorations of Limburg was considered as the main difference between the two styles. The main distribution area of La Hoguette was thought to be located east of the Rhine where it existed already at the same time as the Earliest LBK (ca. 5400–5250 calBC) and in Alsace where it occurred predominantly during the Rubané récent (ca. 5050–4950 calBC). The only exception was the eponymous site in La Hoguette (Normandy, France). Limburg pottery was considered to start later during the Flomborn phase (ca. 5250–5150 calBC) in the Maas valley west of the Rhine and was found until the end of the Rubané in the Paris basin around 4900 calBC (see chronology Table 1) (Lüning, Kloos, & Albert, 1989; Manen & Mazurié de Keroualin, 2003).

Soon the attribution to La Hoguette and Limburg decoration patterns had to be readjusted because of inconsistencies, and Limburg pottery was split into a northern Rheno-Mosan and a southern Sequano-Scaldic branch (van Berg, 1990). Additional categories of Non-LBK ware were defined and designated “Begleitkeramik” (Jeunesse & Sainty, 1991, p. 20) and “Cannelured Begleitkeramik” (Brounen & Hauzeur, 2010). Some scholars considered these as part of La Hoguette (Cziesla, 2015), others as part of Limburg (Gomart & Burnez-Lanotte, 2012, p. 241), and still others as separate categories (Petitdidier et al., 2013). Constantin and colleagues consider them as a development out of La Hoguette (Constantin, Allard, & Demarez, 2010b, p. 17). But there still existed other sherds which did not fit into these extended categories (Amkreutz, Vanmontfort, De Bie, & Verbeek, 2010; Crombé, Sergant, Perdaen, Meylemans, & Deforce, 2015, p. 34; Jeunesse, 1987, p. 9; van de Velde, 2010, p. 73). The original technological definition was also expanded because pottery with mineral or organic temper was attributed to La Hoguette or Limburg (Constantin, 1985, p. 88; Maletschek, 2010). The distribution areas of all these potteries also overlapped. La Hoguette pottery was found as far as the Atlantic coast, far west of the Limburg distribution area (Ghesquière & Aubry, 2013, p. 517; Rousseau, Forré, Hamon, & Querré, 2015), whereas newly found sherds in Alsace were attributed to Limburg pottery (Lefranc & Michler, 2015, Figure 19). Other examples were classed by their authors as La Hoguette, although neither the decoration pattern nor the temper fulfilled the original definition (Altorfer & Hartmann, 2018). But although the definitions became more and more inclusive, the designations were used as if they represented pottery groups with a defined territory, suggesting the existence of cultural units (see discussion in Manen & Mazurié de Keroualin, 2003, p. 135f; as an example see the map in Jeunesse & van Willigen, 2010, Figure 10). In 2010, Constantin, Ilett, and Burnez-Lanotte (2010a) expressed fundamental doubts about the established opinions. Therefore, it might be worthwhile to investigate these potteries from a different angle, from a technological aspect using selected elements of the production process. As technological traditions depend on deeper sorts of learning networks than, for example, the imitation of decorative techniques (Gosselain, 2002, p. 11), this can provide a fruitful alternative way of categorization.

2.2 Corpus of Sites with La Hoguette and Limburg Pottery and Begleitkeramik

3.1 Technological Traditions in the LBK

Based on this approach, one can identify different technological traditions in the LBK. The Earliest LBK is characterized by organic plant temper and a firing process in a reductive atmosphere (Cladders, 2001, p. 39; Strien, 2018).

At the transition from Earliest LBK to Flomborn, there is a marked technological change (Cladders & Stäuble, 2003). The organic temper of the Earliest LBK is replaced by a quartz-based mineral temper, but the firing process remains reductive.

In the Flomborn period, the LBK expands west across the Rhine river, moving both north (Rubané du Nord-Ouest) along the Maas river and south (Rubané du Sud-Ouest) into Alsace (Jeunesse, 1995). It finally reaches the Paris basin forming the Rubané récent du Bassin parisien (RRBP) at about 5000 calBC (Blouet et al., 2013; Constantin & Ilett, 1997; Lefranc, 2013; Meunier, 2012). The pottery of the northern branch is characterized by a mineral temper with a share of grog in the coarse ware. The use of grog as temper commences already in the Earliest LBK, where it, for example, reaches a share of 13% at Rottenburg-Fröbelweg (Bofinger, 2005, p. 77, Figure 41). In the LBK coarse ware at Aubechies, this rises to 60% (Constantin et al., 2010b, p. 14). In the late period in the Hainaut and the western Hesbaye, bone temper in LBK coarse ware can reach 10% or even more, but this remains a regional trend (Constantin et al., 2010b, p. 16). In contrast, the pottery of the southern branch has quartz temper without grog in Rosheim-St.Odile in the east (Gomart, 2014, p. 248) and a temper of fossil shells or calcite in the final phase in the west, e.g. at Cuiry-lès-Chaudardes (Gomart, 2014, pp. 84, 89, 94).

By investigating the chaîne opératoire on eight LBK sites, Gomart tried to shed light on how these innovations spread. The eight sites were carefully selected to cover the whole period and area of the LBK west of the Rhine (Gomart, 2014, pp. 40, 41). Gomart used fashioning techniques as the leading parameter and distinguished three main categories, namely O-configuration (where the coils are just set one above the other), S-configuration (where elongated coils overlap alternatively), and oblique external configuration (where elongated coils are overlapping only outside) each with minor variants (Gomart, 2014, p. 61ff, Gomart & Burnez-Lanotte, 2012).

Gomart states that the westward expansion of the Rubané du Nord-Ouest and du Sud-Ouest is characterized by the S-configuration with minor, but consistent differences in the northern and southern branch (Gomart, 2014, p. 289).

Later in the Rubané récent, the O-configuration is adopted. For example, at Fexhe-le-Haut-Clocher in the Western Hesbaye the S-configuration dominates by 70:20% during the pioneer settlements, whereas later in the Rubané final, the O-configuration dominates by 70:20% (Gomart, 2014, p. 180, Tables 39 and 40). In the RRBP in Cuiry-lès-Chaudardes, this change can be traced throughout the different phases of occupation and is here interpreted as the arrival of new LBK settlers (Gomart, Hachem, Hamon, Giligny, & Ilett, 2015). It is interesting to note that in LBK the O-configuration is not correlated with temper and that the change from S-configuration to O-configuration in LBK sites is not connected with a change of temper.

The oblique external configuration plays only a minor role and only in the final period of the LBK with a share of 3% in the examples investigated by Gomart (2014, p. 280).

3.2 Categorizing Non-LBK Pottery According to Technological Parameters

So far early Non-LBK pottery has mainly been categorized according to decoration patterns. They are the main distinguishing features between La Hoguette, Limburg, and other styles (see Section 2). From a technological aspect, temper, the coiling technique, and the firing process will now be placed center stage.

The literature was searched for information about technical parameters of Non-LBK pottery from more than 200 sites (see list 3). It is a study exclusively based on literature and has to deal with all the inconsistencies, inaccuracies, and missing information involved, but the results should nevertheless give indications for future research priorities.

Overall, 79 sites with La Hoguette pottery, 119 sites with Limburg pottery, and 43 sites with Begleitkeramik were included (see lists 1.1–1.3). Compared to the LBK, this is still a very small basis of information.

Temper is used as the leading criterion to categorize Non-LBK pottery, as it is frequently reported upon and as the choice of different tempers has different outcomes for firing and use (see earlier). On a first level, bone temper, organic temper, and mineral temper can be identified. Grog temper is a subgroup of all three; it is important because it indicates a later technological development and is intentionally added (see Table 2).

For La Hoguette pottery, information about temper is available for 59 of 79 sites (see list 1.1). Bone-tempered pottery occurs on 30 sites, pottery with an organic temper on 13 sites. These include four sites where both tempers were used in the same vessel. Mineral temper occurs on 28 sites and is mostly quartz, only sometimes calcite. On four sites, there are sherds with the temper of fossil shells. Grog temper can be found on 19 sites. In nine cases, it is paired with bone temper, in 11 cases with quartz temper and in three cases with organic temper.

For Limburg pottery, the temper is known for 94 of the 119 sites (see list 1.2). Bone-tempered sherds are on 49 sites, and organic-tempered ones are on 18 sites. On six sites, there is bone and organic temper within one sherd. Forty sites yielded sherds with an intentionally or not intentionally added mineral temper. On 19 sites, bone temper occurs alongside grog, whereas on 13 sites, there is a combination of mineral and grog temper.

For Begleitkeramik, the temper is known for 38 out of 43 sites (see list 1.3). The majority is mineral tempered (24 sites) mainly on a quartz basis, in seven cases combined with grog. There are nine sites with organic-tempered sherds. Bone temper is rather rarely represented. This confirms an observation already made by Brounen and Hauzeur (2010, p. 50f).

In sum, alongside the expected bone temper (see list 2.1), there exists a certain amount of organic (see list 2.2) and a considerable amount of mineral-tempered ware (see list 2.3). Grog temper is to a certain extent present in all three groups (see list 2.4).

Sites were then mapped according to prevalent temper. The mapping of Non-LBK pottery reflects the distribution of LBK settlements clusters because due to better preservation conditions offered by cut features, finds in LBK pits are overrepresented (Jeunesse, 1987, p. 14; Modderman, 1970, p. 118). However, ca. 25% of the sites of La Hoguette pottery, Limburg pottery, and Begleitkeramik are outside an LBK context.

The regional distribution of the different categories of temper is rather uneven. The distribution area of bone-tempered Non-LBK pottery has a clear boundary in the east (Figure 1a), that of the organic-tempered pottery in the west (Figure 1b). This can be interpreted as several technological pottery traditions, potentially with different origins (Kirschneck, 2020). The distribution of the mineral-tempered pottery is divided into an area with mostly quartz-based temper in the northeast and an area with also limestone-based mineral ware in the south (Figure 1c). The distribution area of grog-tempered Non-LBK pottery is mainly concentrated in the northeast (Figure 1d). A special mineral temper with fossil shells is mainly restricted to the south (Figure 1c).

Figure 1

Distribution maps of bone-tempered (a) (red), organic-tempered (b) (green), and mineral-tempered (c) (blue) Non-LBK pottery. The light blue circles in (c) denote fossil shell-tempered Non-LBK pottery. The circles denote LBK settlement clusters. The distribution of grog-tempered Non-LBK pottery is shown in (d).

Non-LBK pottery can generally only be dated by association with LBK pottery. These dates are termini ante quos, as they prove the existence of the pottery at that time, but do not rule out an earlier beginning. Based on their associations with LBK assemblages, one can conclude that all three technologically different Non-LBK wares existed already at the time of the Earliest LBK in western Central Europe (Figure 2). The two more easterly wares, the organic- and the mineral-tempered Non-LBK wares, share their temper choices with the Earliest and Early LBK. In contrast, the bone-tempered pottery shows no similarity with the LBK of the early periods at all.

Figure 2

Distribution areas of early bone-, organic-, and mineral-tempered Non-LBK pottery. Examples from Machecoul (red, left), Goddelau (green, top right), and Anröchte (blue, bottom right). (Drawing: Author with figures from Lüning et al., 1989, p. 398, Figure 12.10, p. 414, Figure 28.1; Rousseau et al., 2015, p. 24).

The coiling technique of the vessel wall was used as the second parameter for categorizing Non-LBK pottery, and, adopting Louise Gomart’s definitions (2014, p. 61ff), three main categories were distinguished, namely O-configuration, S-configuration, and oblique external configuration. Information is only inconsistently reported. Detailed information is available for two La Hoguette vessels from Choisey and Machecoul, both outside the LBK context. On these two vessels, an oblique external configuration was used for the coiling, the vessels were bone tempered (Pétrequin et al., 2009; Rousseau et al., 2015).

In her study on LBK pottery technology, Gomart (2014) analyzed the coiling technique of 86 Non-LBK vessels from five sites with Limburg pottery (one including Begleitkeramik) and one with La Hoguette pottery (Gomart, 2014; Gomart & Burnez-Lanotte, 2012). Of these Non-LBK vessels 52 have oblique external configuration, 27 have S-configuration, otherwise characteristic of the advancing LBK, and 7 O-configuration, which came to dominate in later LBK pottery (see Table 3).

Among the Non-LBK vessels included in Gomart’s study, the oblique external configuration has a share of more than 60%, compared to only 3% in the LBK studied by Gomart (2014, p. 280). The correlation of oblique external configuration and bone temper is strong (48 of the 52). This combination was also attested to the two La Hoguette vessels from Choisey and Machecoul.

In the Rubané moyen phase at Rosmeer, the Limburg vessels with S-configuration and the Begleitkeramik sherds have mainly mineral temper (Gomart & Burnez-Lanotte, 2012). This combination of temper and coiling techniques is the same as within the LBK, which was expanding westwards.

S-configuration in Non-LBK vessels with bone or with bone and grog temper was identified in Rosmeer, in the pioneering settlement of Fexhe-le-Haut-Clocher, and in Cuiry-lès-Chaudardes. O-configuration in Non-LBK vessels with bone temper occurs only in the final occupation phases of Cuiry-lès-Chaudardes. These combinations were not found in LBK vessels.

One La Hoguette vessel from the Rubané récent site Rosheim-St. Odile has O-configuration and fossil shell temper. This combination also occurs in LBK, but only in the final occupation phases of Cuiry-lès-Chaudardes (see later).

Oxidizing or reducing firing is a further important technological parameter. It is not relevant for the internal categorization of Non-LBK wares, because all are fired with an oxidizing phase. For most LBK periods, this separates Non-LBK from LBK pottery, fired in reducing conditions. However, in the final phase of the Paris basin, LBK pottery is fired with an oxidizing phase as well (Meunier, 2013a, p. 492).

4.1 Technology Tradition of Bone-Tempered Non-LBK Pottery

Early bone-tempered Non-LBK pottery is exclusively decorated in the La Hoguette style. Its distribution extends from the Atlantic ocean to the east of the Rhine river (Figure 2). This area is mostly outside the distribution area of both the Earliest LBK and the Cardial. The only available two radiocarbon dates from Alizay – Le Postel and Bad Cannstatt-Wilhelma, both not in LBK context, point to the third-quarter of the sixth Millennium calBC (Ghesquière & Aubry, 2013, p. 519; Kalis et al., 2001, p. 652). Outside the area of the Earliest LBK at least, this is the oldest pottery in western Central Europe. Although east of the Rhine, it comes into contact with the Earliest LBK (ca. 5400–5250 calBC) (Bofinger, 2005), in both shape and temper, it is significantly different to any early ware of either LBK or Cardial. Therefore, in western Central Europe, the first pottery emerged as a tradition outside both LBK and Cardial cultures.

Typical for the early bone-tempered La Hoguette pottery are large, thin-walled vessels coiled in oblique external configuration. According to Pétrequin and colleagues, this technique is very well suited for producing large vessels efficiently (Pétrequin et al., 2009, p. 505). A uniform double-dotted garland decoration can be seen at many sites (see examples in Figure 3). This uniformity suggests social control for the production of pottery. The vessels are locally produced but are similar over a large area (Pétrequin et al., 2009, p. 503; Rousseau et al., 2015, p. 31f). This hints at a large-scale network. In its first occurrence in western Central Europe, this pottery already shows a high level of craftsmanship (Pétrequin et al., 2009, p. 499). The origin of this pottery is uncertain. There are similarities to potteries in the Neolithique ancien de la côte atlantique (NACA), as at La Lède-du-Gurp or on the Iberian peninsula (van Berg, 1987, p. 268), but establishing a definite origin point would require a more comprehensive technological re-examination of the original material.

Figure 3

Early bone-tempered Non-LBK vessels (Drawing: Author with figures from Caillaud & Lagnet, 1972, p. 151; Lüning et al., 1989, p. 400, Figure 14, p. 412, Figure 26.3, p. 414, Figure 28.2; Pétrequin et al., 2009, p. 495; Ghesquière & Aubry, 2013, p. 518; Rousseau et al., 2015, p. 24).

This early bone-tempered La Hoguette pottery establishes a technological tradition characterized by bone temper, oxidizing firing process, pointed-based vessels, and a coiling technique using oblique external configuration. This technological tradition also dominates the bone-tempered Limburg sherds throughout the whole period of Limburg pottery use. In Rosmeer in the Maas valley in the middle LBK period (ca. 5150 calBC), nine out of 16 bone-tempered Limburg sherds belong to that tradition (Gomart & Burnez-Lanotte, 2012, p. 239). In Aubechies in Hainaut in the late LBK (ca. 5050 calBC), the “Classical” Limburg pottery is exclusively part of that tradition (Constantin et al., 2010b; Gomart, 2014, p. 229, Table 58). In Cuiry-lès-Chaudardes in the Aisne valley, this Limburg pottery occurs in all periods of occupation and is still dominant with a share of above 50% in the middle and final period (ca. 5000 calBC) (Gomart, 2014, pp. 88, 93). Therefore, in this area, the technological tradition of the bone-tempered La Hoguette pottery is present throughout the whole period of the LBK and even beyond. The technology is still in use in the Blicquy pottery in Vaux-et-Borset in the Hesbaye (ca. 4900 calBC) (van Doosselaere, Burnez-Lanotte, Gomart, & Livingstone-Smith, 2013). Maybe the influence of this technological tradition can even be felt in the bone-tempered sherds in the Scheldt lowlands (Crombé et al., 2015, p. 34). It was Claude Constantin who already in 1976 directed the attention to this bone-tempered pottery tradition (Constantin, 1986). It is remarkable how long this technological tradition existed – more than five centuries – and that it cross-cuts several decoration styles and even cultural boundaries.

4.2 Organic-Tempered Non-LBK Pottery

The distribution area of the organic-tempered Non-LBK pottery extends the furthest east. Its western boundaries are the lower Moselle and the lower Maas. This technology includes examples of La Hoguette and Limburg pottery and Begleitkeramik (see list 2.2). East of the Rhine, organic-tempered Non-LBK pottery is mostly found in association with pottery of the Earliest LBK, with Bruchenbrücken and Goddelau the most prominent examples (Cladders, 2001; Lüning et al., 1989). But it also exists outside the area of the Earliest LBK as in Soest-Burgtheaterplatz, in association with flint artifacts (Knoche, 2010), and west of the Rhine, as in Liege-St. Lambert (Van der Sloot et al., 2003) and Ittervorth (Brounen et al., 2010a). It can be evidenced until the end of the LBK. Important examples of this technology are the Begleitkeramik sherds of Haelen-Broekweg, where this technology is associated with late Mesolithic-style lithic material (Bats et al., 2002). This ware is the dominant Non-LBK pottery in the Moselle valley, with examples from Weiler-la-Tour Holzdreisch (Jadin, 1996), and well represented in the Maas area. The pottery from Welde and Brecht (Amkreutz et al., 2010) could be included as late examples into this tradition.

Organic-tempered Non-LBK vessels have some technological features in common with the Earliest LBK, particularly temper, although there are differences, too – notably the oxidizing firing and the pointed bottoms (Cladders, 2001, p. 58). Therefore, it could be postulated that this pottery emerges in the sphere of the Earliest LBK. Maybe several other atypical Earliest LBK sherds could also be placed in the context of this technological tradition (Strien, 2018, p. 46; Kloos, 1997, Footnote 63). This tradition is also spread westwards outside the area of the Earliest LBK, where it survives even after LBK pottery undergoes a technological change from organic to mineral temper with the transition to Flomborn around 5250 calBC.

4.3 Mineral-Tempered Non-LBK Pottery along the Rhine and Maas

A third Non-LBK pottery tradition can be defined for an area between Ede-Frankeneng, the Netherlands, and Hiddenhausen-Bermbek (North Rhine Westphalia) in the north and Puttelange, Moselle, and Wallmersbach (Bavaria) in the south. This tradition can be identified by a mineral temper on quartz base, often with additions of grog. This technology includes examples of La Hoguette and Limburg pottery and Begleitkeramik (see list 2.3). This technological tradition exists from the Earliest LBK to the end of the LBK.

Early examples are the La Hoguette vessels in Steinfurth (Langenbrink & Kneipp, 1990) and Nackenheim (Lüning et al., 1989) in an Earliest LBK context and Anröchte (Lüning et al., 1989), Ede-Frankeneng (Schut, 1988), Sehndorf (Fritsch, 2000a), and Puttelange (Petitdidier et al., 2013) outside an LBK context. On some early examples, a characteristic barbed wire decoration can be seen, different from the garland decoration of bone-tempered La Hoguette vessels. In Geleen-Janskamperveld, the majority of the Limburg sherds is mineral tempered (van de Velde, 2007). Grog is added to 15% of the sherds in Geleen-Janskamperveld and to 55% in the later site Liege-St. Lambert (Rouselle, 1984). In Rosmeer, the S-configuration coiling technique is used for Begleitkeramik as well as for Limburg sherds similar in decoration to those from Geleen-Janskamperveld (Gomart & Burnez-Lanotte, 2012, p. 239).

The origin of this technology is uncertain. Quartz-based mineral temper with additions of grog and S-configuration as coiling technique are also features of Flomborn pottery, which expands westwards (Gomart, 2014, p. 197, Table 45). However, differences remain in shape, oxidizing firing, and decoration. In contrast, the bone-tempered pottery with its oblique external configuration is different from both LBK and mineral-tempered Non-LBK, but shares oxidizing firing and vessel form with the mineral-tempered Non-LBK. This mixed pattern of similarity and difference suggests that the producers of the mineral-tempered Non-LBK wares integrate technological influences of the LBK and other Non-LBK wares. One should note, however, that the mineral-tempered Non-LBK overlaps chronologically with organic-tempered Earliest LBK.

4.4 Non-LBK Pottery with Fossil Shell Temper

Beginning in the Rubané récent, a particular mineral temper of fossil shells can be found in Non-LBK potteries in Alsace. Rather often the sherds are undecorated or only very sparsely decorated. Mostly, they are not attributed to any pottery style (see list 2.3 and Figure 1c). In Bischoffsheim (Jeunesse & Sainty, 1991) and in Rosheim-St. Odile (Jeunesse & Lefranc, 1999), the pottery is attributed to La Hoguette. The site Rosheim-St. Odile was examined by Gomart (2014, p. 237f). Here, one La Hoguette sherd is the only example with this temper, but it shares the O-configuration coiling technique with the majority of LBK sherds (Gomart, 2014, p. 245, Table 61, p. 248, Table 64).

Later, similar pottery with fossil temper was found west of Alsace in Ay-sur-Moselle and Vitry-sur-Orne in Lorraine (Petitdidier et al., 2013), in Orconte-Les Noues and Juvigny along the Marne (Meunier, 2013b; Tappret & Villes, 1996) and Presles-et-Boves in the Paris basin (Ilett & Allard, 2008), mostly attributed to Limburg pottery. Fossil shell temper is also found south of the LBK distribution in the Doubs valley in Bavans and Bart (Aimé, Jaccottey, & Thévenin, 1995, p. 84; Jeunesse, 1987), and in the Saône valley in layer 58 of the Grotte du Gardon (Manen & Convertini, 2009). The sherds from the Grotte du Gardon probably date to ca. 5200 calBC (Perrin, 2013, p. 369) and therefore earlier than those from Alsace, suggesting a southern influence. However, this temper is used very rarely in Cardial and Epicardial (Binder, Clop, Convertini, Manen, & Sénépart, 2010; van Willigen, 2004). In LBK, it is also rare: only in the Aisne valley in Cuiry-lès-Chaudardes, it is one of the two tempers used (Gomart, 2014). The origin of fossil shell temper technology is currently unknown.

The O-configuration of the Rosheim Non-LBK sherd is otherwise rare in Non-LBK pottery but dominates in the Rubané récent (see Section 3.1). It is also used for Epicardial pottery at Grotte de Camprafaud and Roucadour (Niederlender, Lacam, & Arnal, 1966; van Willigen, 2004) with different mineral tempers. Much more detailed technological study is needed to ascertain whether this shows a mutual influence between LBK and Epicardial and how the transfer could have taken place.

5.1 Research History of Hunter-Gatherer Potteries

In the 1980s, the general opinion was that pottery entered Western and Central Europe in two independent expansions as part of the so-called Neolithic package. Bearers of the Impressa and later the Cardial culture progressed west along the Mediterranean coast, whereas the LBK advanced along the Danube river (Guilaine, 2001; Lüning, 1988). It was at least implicitly assumed that the transfer of pottery production into hunting and gathering economies would be possible – if at all – only through neighboring Neolithic cultures. One influential explanation for the origin of La Hoguette and Limburg pottery was that it developed under the influence of Cardial among hunter-gatherers (Jeunesse, 1987, p. 16; Manen, 1997).

Since the 1990s, it has been acknowledged that hunter-gatherers could also play a vital role in the development of pottery. It has also become generally accepted that on a global scale, pottery was first invented in hunter-gatherer societies (Jordan & Zvelebil, 2009; Rice, 1999; van Berg, 1997). For Eastern Europe, it is firmly established that pottery existed in hunter-gatherer societies over a long period without them adopting a productive economy (Mazurkevich & Dolbunova, 2015; Piezonka, 2015).

According to Mazurkevich and Dolbunova (2015), pottery became established in hunter-gatherer societies of the steppe and forest zones of Eastern and Northern Europe in one of two ways. One is the distribution of the knowledge of pottery purely within hunter-gatherer communities over great distances and within short time spans. The reason for this could be the importance of pottery as a prestige or cult object. The other way is that pottery expanded from Neolithic centers into hunter-gatherer communities (Mazurkevich & Dolbunova, 2015, p. 31). One can hence begin from the premise that similar mechanisms could also have existed in the case of Western and Central Europe (Constantin, 1985; van Berg, 1990) and that these could be recognized archaeologically.

For France, there are two different opinions about the existence of hunter-gatherers during the Neolithic period. One states that there is a gap of some centuries between the last hunter-gatherers and the expansion of Neolithic cultures across France. Only in the Grotte du Gardon could hunter-gatherers and Neolithic people have met (Perrin, 2013; Perrin, Manen, Valdeyron, & Guilaine, 2018). Therefore, hunter-gatherer pottery cannot exist in France, because hunter-gatherers had left the area before the innovation was introduced. In contrast, the other research tradition states that hunter-gatherer pottery also exists in France and survives in some areas until well after the establishment of Neolithic cultures (Jeunesse, Arbogast, Mauvilly, & Denaire, 2019). In this context, Epicardial is seen as a pottery tradition that possibly develops through contacts of Cardial culture communities with hunter-gatherers (van Willigen, 2018).

Similarly, different opinions exist concerning the makers of La Hoguette and Limburg pottery. One group of scholars consider the producers as hunter-gatherers with Mesolithic economies (among others Cziesla, 2015, p. 273ff; van Berg, 1997). Others accept that the producers are hunter-gatherers but imply that they have already adopted some elements of the Neolithic economic package (Gronenborn, 2009, p. 534; Jeunesse & van Willigen, 2010; Pétrequin et al., 2009, p. 512; Strien, 2018, p. 37). Some researchers attribute this pottery to hunter-gatherers who live in a close, nearly symbiotic relationship with LBK people (Crombé, 2009, p. 484f). Finally, there is also the position that this pottery is produced by LBK people for a particular reason or purpose (Blouet et al., 2013, p. 165; Gomart, 2014, p. 320f; Verhart, 2000, p. 229).

There is hence a broad spectrum of opinions regarding the relationship of different pottery styles to different economic regimes and/or identity groups. It is also possible that different scenarios could be applied depending on the area and period.

5.2 Who are the Producers of the Different Technology Traditions?

We are now going to discuss the question of who the people behind the different postulated technology traditions may have been. Could they have been LBK people or is production by other social groups, for example, hunter-gatherers, also possible?

A high-quality Non-LBK pottery with unknown origin exists in a wide area from the Atlantic ocean to the Rhine already in the period of the Earliest LBK. The available two radiocarbon dates point to the third-quarter of the 6th-millennium calBC. Technologically, this pottery is significantly different from any early ware of either LBK or Cardial. Because some examples are locally produced far outside the distribution area of the Earliest LBK (Pétrequin et al., 2009; Rousseau et al., 2015), it is unlikely that LBK settlers made them. For the same reasons, the Cardial people can be ruled out. In Bad Cannstatt – Wilhelma, the pollen profile shows an undisturbed environment with no signs of agriculture (Meurers-Balke & Kalis, 2001, p. 645). This is consistent with the first scenario of Mazurkevich and Dolbunova (2015), i.e. these pots could have been produced by hunter-gatherers communicating over long distances. While direct proof, e.g., an association with Mesolithic artifacts, is still lacking, we must seriously entertain the possibility that this pottery emerged in a hunter-gatherer context.

A second technological tradition with organic temper is attested, comprising La Hoguette and Limburg pottery alongside Begleitkeramik. Some technological features are shared with the Earliest LBK. It existed already during the Earliest LBK and overlaps its area of distribution. Cladders interprets the finds in Bruchenbrücken and Goddelau as the product of hunter-gatherer descendants integrated into LBK society for example by marriage, or as produced by LBK women trying to copy Non-LBK decoration patterns in a clumsy way (Cladders, 2001, p. 59). However, organic-tempered Non-LBK ware can also be found far outside the area of the Earliest LBK and at later dates. These facts, as well as the comparatively small number of Non-LBK sherds and their internal technological variety, speak against production by LBK people. Sites with this tradition are also found outside the distribution area of bone-tempered Non-LBK pottery. Therefore, it is probable that these two Non-LBK pottery traditions were made by different societies. At Haelen-Broekweg, this pottery was found together with Mesolithic lithic artifacts. This is consistent with the second scenario of Mazurkevich and Dolbunova (2015), in that the producers could be hunter-gatherers who are influenced by the Earliest LBK. Again, collecting further direct proof is now a priority. An alternative suggestion, specific to the Central European situation, is that the westward movement of the Earliest LBK was accompanied by ceramic hunter-gatherers.

A third technical pottery tradition with a mineral temper on a quartz base, often with the addition of grog could be identified in the lower Rhine area. The distribution area of this pottery extends far north of the LBK distribution area, and north of the distribution area of the bone-tempered Non-LBK ware. The producers of this pottery could hence be different from both LBK settlers and the producers of bone-tempered Non-LBK pottery. One central site is Geleen-Janskamperveld with its different kinds of mineral temper. The variety of decoration here can be interpreted as acculturation between LBK people and a group with different traditions, for example by marriage (van de Velde, 2007, p. 110). Given the technological similarities with the LBK, one could, following the second scenario of Mazurkevich and Dolbunova (2015), consider the producers as hunter-gatherers who learned pottery making from neighboring LBK people. But again there is no direct evidence for the economic system of the producers, and the situation is complex, as further south that pottery already exists in parallel the Earliest LBK and its organic temper.

Finally, a pottery tradition with fossil shell temper exists in Alsace and adjacent areas. Such sherds occur in small quantities on LBK sites from Alsace to the Aisne valley and are also found outside the LBK area in the Doubs and Saône valley to the south. The sherds are variously attributed to La Hoguette, to Limburg or to neither. In Alsace, they can be distinguished from LBK sherds by their temper and the firing process and could therefore have been produced by a group of potters who did not share LBK traditions. While there is a gap between the distribution areas of LBK and the Cardial and Epicardial, it is well known that there were contacts between both spheres, whether direct or indirect (van Willigen, 2018). Possibly, the producers of this Non-LBK pottery technology were neither LBK nor Cardial people and could have acted as conduits, who transferred technological know-how between these spheres.

In sum, a second tradition of pottery production seems to exist outside the LBK culture in western Central Europe. It is present during the whole period of the LBK within and outside the LBK area, and so is at least partly independent of LBK pottery production, as also shown by the divergent technological choices. We do not know very much about the economic system of its producers, but for those groups living outside already Neolithic zones, a hunter-gatherer lifestyle seems likely. Taphonomic factors are probably skewing the distribution area of Non-LBK pottery toward areas with cut features, i.e. LBK pits. Yet, the already documented sherds from outside LBK contexts suggest that more sites are yet to be found in such areas. The Non-LBK pottery in LBK pits shows that there was continuous interaction between these societies and the LBK, which we are going to discuss next.

5.3 Contacts and Acculturation

People producing LBK and Non-LBK wares existed side by side during the whole period of the LBK. The westward expansion of the LBK leads to recurrent contacts between these diverse groups. Their interaction is mirrored in the development of pottery.

The first contact of producers of a bone-tempered pottery with the Earliest LBK communities occurs east of the Rhine river (Lüning et al., 1989). Both pottery traditions are subject to a strict social control at this time, and therefore, both sides are not in a position to adopt foreign influences. As adaption is impossible, bone-tempered La Hoguette pots quickly disappear east of the Rhine (Hofmann, 2016). Bone temper is accepted into LBK tradition only much later and in geographically restricted areas as in Hainaut (Constantin et al., 2010b) or Southern Poland (Rauba-Bukowska, 2009).

In contrast, in the early settlement (Modderman period Ib/c) in Geleen-Janskamperveld in the Maas valley, Flomborn LBK pottery and mainly mineral-tempered Non-LBK pottery coexist. The multiplying of decorations in the Non-LBK pottery is interpreted as the assimilation of Non-LBK pottery producers into LBK society, maybe by marriage (van de Velde, 2007).

In Rosmeer, in the middle period of the LBK (Modderman period Id/IIa), a mutual technological exchange between mineral- and bone-tempered Non-LBK pottery is visible in the coiling technique (Gomart & Burnez-Lanotte, 2012, p. 239). Adopting grog as an additional temper could be seen as LBK influence. Here, the technological exchange only affects Non-LBK pottery, while the LBK does not yet adopt any other technology (Gomart, 2014, p. 197, Table 45).

In the Hainaut, LBK settlements are established in the Rubané récent and final (Modderman period IIb/d). LBK people now enter an area where the tradition of bone-tempered Non-LBK pottery is extremely strong. Here, this bone-tempered Non-LBK pottery is little influenced by foreign LBK pottery traditions. Its makers do not change their fashioning method (Gomart, 2014, p. 228) and the share of grog temper is only 5%, significantly smaller than in the LBK on that site or in the Non-LBK pottery further east (e.g. at Rosmeer).

In Aubechies, the producers of Non-LBK pottery are present during the whole LBK occupation from Modderman IIb to IId. But were the producers of Non-LBK pottery already present before the arrival of LBK? There are a few indications, such as – one LBK sherd of period Modderman I in pit 128 in association with Non-LBK sherds (Constantin et al., 2010b, p. 21), indicating a contact between Non-LBK and LBK people already prior to the latter’s occupation of the site, the stratigraphy of pit 7 with Non-LBK sherds below LBK sherds (Constantin, 1985, p. 106), and – the cluster of nearly complete Non-LBK vessels with almost no LBK sherds in pit 10 (Constantin, 1985, p. 106; Constantin et al., 2010b, p. 20).

Later, close contacts between LBK settlers and the producers of bone-tempered Non-LBK pottery can be identified. In pit 150, large Non-LBK vessels were found packed together with coarse LBK ware (Constantin et al., 2010b, p. 20).

In the late LBK in the Hainaut and the western Hesbaye, a bone-tempered thin-walled Non-LBK pottery with vessel forms atypical for Limburg pottery exists. This pottery shows a characteristic dotted decoration. It has among others been identified in Aubechies, Darion, Waremme, and Overhespen and combines technological elements of bone-tempered Non-LBK pottery and LBK ware. In the Kleine Gete, the plant spectrum and lithic artifacts were described as influenced by Non-LBK societies (Lodewijckx, 2010, p. 80). This could be interpreted as an acculturation process between LBK people and the producers of bone-tempered Non-LBK pottery. This could be the reason why LBK coarse ware at several Hainaut sites has 10% or more bone temper (Constantin et al., 2010b, p. 17).

The Aisne valley is settled by LBK people in the final period of the LBK. Here, they again enter an area where the tradition of bone-tempered Non-LBK pottery is strong. This technology is present throughout the whole period of occupation. Outside an LBK context, it exists at Berry-au-Bac-La Renardière (Ilett & Plateaux, 1995, p. 96) and Pontavert (Constantin et al., 1981), demonstrating the partial independence of its producers. In addition, the influence of the producers of fossil shell-tempered Non-LBK pottery can be seen in Presles-et-Boves (Ilett & Allard, 2008). The Aisne valley becomes a melting pot of different Non-LBK pottery traditions, with consecutive waves of LBK migrants (as envisaged by Gomart et al., 2015). Their mutual acculturation can be traced in the consecutive occupation phases of Cuiry-lès-Chaudardes. The know-how of technological features such as temper, fashioning methods, and firing are exchanged between the producers of LBK and Non-LBK pottery (see as an example the two vessels in Gomart, 2014, p. 156, Figure 51).

In sum, in the early periods, the producers of Non-LBK pottery seem to have no technological influence on the LBK. Over time, technological changes appear in LBK pottery which could have originated in the contact with Non-LBK pottery groups. In the final LBK phases of the Hainaut and the Aisne valley, acculturation processes between the different pottery groups unfold, providing the basis for the bone-tempered Blicquy pottery of the Hainaut and Hesbaye and the bone- and mineral-tempered VSG pottery of the Aisne valley.

5.4 The Information Contained in Decoration Patterns

La Hoguette and Limburg pottery are usually defined based on decoration, but decorative styles do not correlate with the technological traditions of Non-LBK pottery. In any case, there was always a broad spectrum of decorations subsumed by these two terms, leading some authors to define Begleitkeramik (Jeunesse & Sainty, 1991, p. 20), to split up Limburg pottery into many subgroups (van Berg, 1990) or to instead define a Limburg “classique” (Constantin et al., 2010b, p. 17). The question arises whether the different origins of Non-LBK pottery and the dynamic relationship between its producers and the LBK, traced above based on technology, are also reflected in the decoration patterns.

The earliest La Hoguette vessels are characterized by different dotted decoration patterns (Figure 2). The bone-tempered ware has a double dotted garland decoration (see examples in Figure 3), the mineral-tempered ware a barbed wire-like dotted decoration, as in Anröchte and Steinfurth (Knoche, 2010; Langenbrink & Kneipp, 1990; Lüning et al., 1989), and the organic-tempered ware often a stab-and-drag decoration, as in Goddelau, Bruchenbrücken, and Ittervoorth (Brounen et al., 2010a; Lüning et al., 1989).

In the first Flomborn settlements in the Maas valley, as in Elsloo, we see the emergence of a unified stroke decoration in mineral-tempered Non-LBK pottery (Modderman, 1981). This then expands across all Non-LBK pottery traditions, even across technological borders, and is distributed from Hainaut to the Rhine, for example in Rosmeer, Aubechies, Weiler-la-Tour Holzdreisch, and Ay-sur-Moselle (Figure 4). In the literature, it is called the “Christmas tree decoration” and constitutes up to 40% of Limburg pottery (Constantin et al., 2010b, p. 18). It perhaps expresses an identity explicitly opposed to the LBK.

Figure 4

Distribution area of different technology groups showing stroke decoration pattern. Bone-tempered examples (red) from Aubechies (left) and Rosmeer (top center), organic-tempered ones (green) from Weiler-la-Tour Holzdreisch (bottom right), and mineral-tempered ones (blue) from Elsloo (top right), and Ay-sur-Moselle (bottom center). (Drawing: Author with figures from Blouet et al., 2013, p. 164, Figure 67.1; Constantin & Demarez, 1981, p. 213, Figure 2.1; Gomart, 2014, p. 188, Figure 63c; Hauzeur, 2006, p. 646, pl. 192b2; Jadin, 1996, p. 108, Figure 5.2; Modderman, 1981, p. 142, Figure 1.8).

At a regional scale, other decoration patterns exist (Figure 5). In the Maas and Moselle valley, a dotted angled band decoration occurs mainly on mineral and organic-tempered pottery (Brounen & Hauzeur, 2010). Its distribution extends north to Ede-Frankeneng and Gassel, west to Thines, and Aubechies, and south to Sehndorf, and it is relatively often found outside LBK contexts. In Haelen-Broekweg (Bats et al., 2002) and in Brüggen-Bracht (Loewe, 1971), this pottery is connected with late Mesolithic-style artifacts. This Begleitkeramik decoration could represent a Non-LBK society that considers itself explicitly outside the LBK culture.

Figure 5

Distribution areas of regional decoration patterns. Examples from Gassel and Sehndorf (right) with organic and mineral temper (blue and green), Auchechies (top left) with bone temper (red), and Cuiry-lès-Chaudardes (bottom left) with mineral and bone temper (blue and red). (Drawing: Author with figures from Brounen & de Jong, 1988, p. 185, Figure 3a; Constantin & Demarez, 1981, p. 219, Figure 7; Constantin, 1985, pl. 76 378.1,2; Fritsch, 2000b, p. 232, pl. 1.1).

In the Hainaut and in the western Hesbaye, a specific dotted decoration appears on thin-walled bone-tempered Limburg pottery which also shares technological features with LBK ceramics (Constantin et al., 2010b, p. 17). Van Berg (1990) considered them as group 6 of Rheno-Mosan Limburg pottery. Probably, the La Hoguette sherds of Blicquy Couture du Couvent (Deramaix & Demarez, 1989) should also be included in this category. It seems to be the expression of a community with very intense relationships with the LBK.

In the late LBK of the Paris basin, particularly in Cuiry-lès-Chaudardes and in Juvigny, there is a characteristic perpendicular stroke decoration on mineral- and bone-tempered Non-LBK pottery. van Berg (1990) called it the Sequano-Scaldic branch of Limburg pottery. Its share of Limburg pottery is 15% (Constantin et al., 2010b, p. 18). This decoration pattern may be connected with southern influences (Lichardus-Itten, 1986, p. 156).

Overall, the decoration patterns of Non-LBK potteries are responsive to the social interaction of their producers with each other and the LBK, reflecting the dynamics and diversity of these communities. Although we need a better dating framework, on current evidence the technological parameters reflect the slower exchange of know-how based on shared learning. The two aspects of pottery production, clay preparation, and surface decoration, thus inform us of different dynamics.

5.5 La Hoguette and Limburg

The results of this investigation cast doubt on some long-held and widespread opinions about La Hoguette and Limburg. They fundamentally question the uniformity of La Hoguette over a wide area and a long period of time. Early La Hoguette pottery consists of a bone-tempered variety with unknown origin and two organic- and mineral-tempered wares which could have developed partly due to contact with the LBK. For the early La Hoguette, there is no evident connection to Cardial, as already stated by Constantin and colleagues (Constantin et al., 2010a). Limburg pottery along the Maas and Moselle and in the Hainaut stands in the direct technological tradition of the various early La Hoguette pottery traditions and is not uniform either. In particular, the Begleitkeramik in the Maas and the Moselle valley with its mineral or organic temper (Brounen & Hauzeur, 2010) is part of the eastern technological traditions and therefore may originate in the sphere of early LBK pottery and not in the bone-tempered Non-LBK of the west.

The mineral-tempered late La Hoguette pottery and Begleitkeramik in Alsace have no technological connection with early bone-tempered La Hoguette pots, either. These wares could be traced back to Epicardial influences. The Limburg pottery of the Paris basin also shows inspirations of Cardial and Epicardial.