An Integrated Zooarchaeological and Micromorphological Perspective on Midden Taphonomy at Late Neolithic Çatalhöyük

2.1 Çatalhöyük Site

Çatalhöyük (37^o40′03″N, 32^o49′42″E) is one of the largest early Neolithic archaeological sites in the Near East, covering 13 ha and standing over 18 m high. It is located in the Konya Plain of Central Anatolia at an elevation of ca. 1,000 m above sea level. Excavations at Çatalhöyük have focused on several areas of the East Mound (BACH and 4040, recently renamed “North”; GDN; TP; TPC; Istanbul; and South) (Figure 2). The stratigraphic sequence at Çatalhöyük East, and its chronology with respect to both Central Anatolian and Levantine periodization, is published elsewhere (Pawłowska, 2014; Wright, 2014, Table 1, p. 5; with further references). In this article we focus on the TP Area, the uppermost levels of the site, labeled TP.M–TP.R and dating from 6300 to 5950 cal BCE (Late (debatable) and Final Phases: Hodder, 2016, 2020; Barański et al., 2022). The excavation was led by Lech Czerniak and Arkadiusz Marciniak.

Figure 2

Map of the site with details of the excavation area. Abbreviations refer to the excavation areas. TP (Team Poznań) and South Areas are discussed here. Source: Google Earth, with modification.

2.2 Midden Taphonomy at Çatalhöyük

Çatalhöyük is characterized by a dense network of buildings, surrounded by a buildup of “midden.” The term midden is used at the site for deposits primarily related to the deliberate disposal of cultural material, either outside or inside a structure (Hodder, Cessford, & Farid, 2007). The sedimentary matrix consists largely of ashes, degraded architectural materials, and decayed organic remains, with inclusions of not only animal bones but also human bone, mollusks, eggshell, figurines, beads, obsidian, clay balls, pottery, carbonized plant remains, small fragments of plaster and mudbrick, fecal material and phytoliths (Matthews, 2005; Shillito & Matthews, 2013). Middens can be viewed as a place where the rubbish were placed; however, at Çatalhöyük, in fact they represent more complex depositional history with the evidence of mixing of material from several depositional units. Many activities have taken place in middens such as fire-spots, human burials, recovery of building material, ritual behaviors, and a specific event (e.g., a feast) (Martin & Russell, 2005). The classification of midden deposits is complex. Although the general term “midden” is used across the site, it is recognized that middens are highly variable with a wide range of “types” (Martin & Russell, 2005). Spatially, middens are differentiated into interior middens, exterior middens, and courtyard middens. Some middens are highly stratified, while others show signs of trampling and in situ bonfires, suggesting a wider use for these deposits than simply for waste disposal, and “midden” spaces may change from one function to another through time (Bogaard et al., 2013; Issavi, Pawłowska, Vasić, & Veropoulidou, 2020; Shillito & Ryan, 2013). Middens are mainly studied macroscopically, which, however, provides no insight into the formation process of such finely stratified deposits (Yeomans, 2005), and what can unravel microstratigraphic approaches.

Micromorphology at Çatalhöyük has been applied to a wide range of contexts and studies, including analysis of midden formation processes (Shillito & Matthews, 2013), reconstructing use of space within buildings (Matthews, 2005), and in understanding plant taphonomy (Matthews, 2010; Shillito, 2011).

A combined analysis of zooarchaeology and micromorphology of middens from the uppermost levels in the TP Area at Çatalhöyük enables us to investigate the aspects of midden taphonomy related to the movement of material as part of their formation processes. The micromorphology and bone sampling approaches were devised in tandem to answer specific questions concerning the process of midden formation. It is also possible to evaluate the bone attrition process prior to considering subsistence issues in late Neolithic Çatalhöyük in studies of the bone assemblage. Understanding the formation processes of middens and the taphonomy of assemblages of materials within them is an important step in our ability to reconstruct human activity. The “microtaphonomic” approach to faunal remains has not been considered previously at Çatalhöyük, but various micromorphological case studies are known from other sites and contexts. Brönnimann et al. (2020a) have shown that a micromorphological approach to archaeological contexts (Iron Age; Switzerland) offers the possibility of defining microfacies types, the mapping of which reveals a differentiated use of space. Other outcomes indicate that middens probably served as material depots and that waste was not simply seen as rubbish, but was stored as a resource (Brönnimann et al., 2020b). In turn, Shahack-Gross (2017) has provided an overview of the evidence of fenced areas, where domestic animals (mostly cattle, sheep, and goats) are corralled, using micromorphological studies.

3.1 Bone Assemblage Sampling Strategy

To date, more than one million specimens have been recorded from various excavation areas at Çatalhöyük. One of these is TP Area, where the final season of exploration was held in 2008. Following the establishment of the final stratigraphic sequence in 2013 for Neolithic deposits and specifying of the types of deposits, it is now possible to conduct contextual analysis of the animal bones discovered. Various interpretative categories for units with animal bones have been established (such as floor, midden, fill, animal bone in cluster, and broadly contructional). The analyzed animal bones come from middens and represent almost all of the TP stratigraphic levels (labeled TP.M–TP.R). The middens of one level (TP.P) did not provide any fully recorded units and so this level does not figure in the results. However, since the units from this level were scanned in order to select samples for radiocarbon dating, meaning that articulation was recorded, these data are dealt with.

The assemblage consists of 14,815 specimens, recovered by dry sieve (4 mm mesh) and flotation (>4 mm). The results are presented as the number of identified specimens (all identified specimens assigned to genus, species, or size class, for which taphonomic data were recorded). This assemblage includes all the animal bones studied from TP middens up to 2008, which constitutes ca. 15% of all items recovered from this excavation area.

The bone remains are presented within a contextual framework of levels and spaces (the latter when there were sufficient samples), to analyze variation spatially and over time.

Taxonomy, anatomy, age, sex structures, metrical data, articulation (anatomical order), worked bone, and taphonomic characteristics were examined and recorded for each specimen using the unified recording system in the centralized Çatalhöyük Microsoft Access database (Russell & Martin, 2005). In this article, only the faunal assemblage composition and the results for the taphonomic aspects related to movement, displacement, and disturbance within the middens are presented.

Data on the abundance of taxa in the assemblage are shown using the number of identified specimens (NISP) and diagnostic zones (DZ). The frequencies of the species are given by DZ (sensu Bogucki, 1982, Watson, 1979). The density of the middens was calculated by weight for the TP levels, and more specifically for each context (space). The final result was expressed in grams of bone per liter of soil. For this purpose, for each unit that provided some animal bone, the total soil volume (calculated as the sum of soils for dry sieve and flotation samples) was taken into account.

The nature and quantity of all surface modifications originating from trampling (Fiorillo, 1989), carnivore and rodent gnawing, digestion (Fisher, 1995; Lyman, 1994), subaerial weathering (Behrensmeyer, 1978; Lyman & Fox, 1989), abrasion (Shipman & Rose, 1988), and root etching (Binford, 1981; Lyman, 1994) were studied. NISP were used to express the bone surface modification data. The degree of post-burial fragmentation was detected using the completeness index (CI) and the percentage of whole elements (% Whole) (Darwent & Lyman, 2002). The CI was derived by estimating the study specimen for the fraction of the original compact bone that is present, summing the values, and dividing that by the total number of specimens ascribed to the bone and taxon (Marean, 1991). In checking the CI, carpals and tarsals (excluding calcaneus samples) were taken into account. Since the inclusion of specimens with modifications tends to skew measures of fragmentation (Darwent & Lyman, 2002), all digested, burnt, and heavy gnawed specimens were omitted. Because of the relative lack of heavy weathered samples, additional selections were not necessary here.

The ratio of proximal and distal parts of the humeri and tibias served as an indicator of density-mediated attrition; the proximal parts of these bones are structurally weaker than the distal parts, and have low structural density; they are therefore expected to be lost when attrition process occurs.

3.2 Thin Section Micromorphology

Samples for micromorphology were collected from midden unit 8932 (Space 414, level TP.Q). An overlapping sequence of three large blocks were collected, forming a continuous section 60 cm in depth. The undisturbed blocks were impregnated with epoxy resin and hardened in 24 h at 70°C. Large format slides 15 cm × 7 cm were prepared from the blocks using Brot thin sectioning equipment. Slides were examined using a Leica DM750P at a range of magnifications and measurements were recorded using Leica v4.4. software. Deposits were classified according to the standard criteria (Bullock, Fedoroff, Jongerius, Stoops, & Tursina, 1985). For the purposes of this study, a particular focus was on bone inclusions. These have previously been identified to occur at <5% frequency within midden sub-units in the TP Area. The slides were divided into 5 cm intervals, and total counts of bone fragments were recorded for size categories of <0.1 to >2.0 mm. Other micromorphological characteristics for bone fragments were noted, such as morphology and weathering.

4.1 Zooarchaeological Analysis

The TP middens are characterized by high levels of caprine bone (81.7% DZ), followed by cattle (13.4% DZ), equid (1.8% DZ), wild boar (1.4% DZ), and carnivore (1.4% DZ) (Figure 3; for detailed count data, see Pawłowska, in press). Sheep outnumbered goats (8.3:1). Human bones make up 2.7% NISP and 0.1% DZ of the total assemblage, and are especially frequently observed in level TP.R (Space 416).

Figure 3

Çatalhöyük East, TP sequence. Proportions of the major taxa by TP levels using diagnostic zones (DZ).

The midden density data follows a decreasing trend through the TP sequence (Figure 4). The densest midden is on the TP.N level (6.0 g/L), in contrast to the less dense midden on the TP.Q level (1.3 g/L). This is also clearly visible in regard to the spaces (Figure 4).

Figure 4

Çatalhöyük East, TP middens. Bar chart showing midden density through TP levels and the spaces within them.

Fifty-one specimen were found in articulation. Articulated elements occur on each TP level and in the majority of spaces (Figure 5). The exceptions are Spaces 318 (TP.N), 437 (TP.Q), and 416 (TP.R), where no articulated bones were noted. The articulated bones come mainly from caprines (n = 33), followed by cattle (n = 10), and equid (n = 8). Forelimb and hindlimb elements have been identified: these are mostly phalanges (n = 11), tarsals (n = 10), and carpals (n = 9) (Pawłowska, 2014).

Figure 5

Çatalhöyük East, TP middens. Bar chart showing the frequency of articulated bones of sheep/goat, cattle, and equids through TP levels and the spaces within them MNE: minimum number of elements.

One hundred and one bone fragments in the TP assemblage (0.7%; with old breaks only) displayed fine, shallow, and variable oriented striations on the surface, which were considered to be effects of trampling. Trampled bones are found in all spaces except for Spaces 439, 435, and 414 and on all TP levels (Table 1). Although a slightly larger percent of trampled bones were present on the TP.R level (where they mostly come from Space 412; 2.8%; n = 80), their incidence generally does not exceed 0.5% which is within levels. Over 85% of them fall into the sheep-size category, followed by cow-size (ca. 12%).

Gnawing marks are recorded on 2.9% of midden specimens from the TP assemblage (Table 1). Both carnivore (2.9%) and rodent (0.05%) marks are noted, with the predominance of the former. Rodent marks, in the form of paired, broad, shallow, and flat-bottomed grooves, are only recorded within assemblages attributed to the TP.M and TP.R levels. The frequency of carnivore marks does not exceed 10% within any of the TP levels (Figure 6). About 5% are digested bone (Table 1). The size of the digested pieces does not exceed 4 cm over the whole sequence (with 2 cm length pieces predominating). A comparison of the frequencies of the gnawed and digested bones within the levels shows a predominance of gnawed specimens on the oldest level (TP.M), a balanced proportion of the two on the two consecutive levels (TP.N and TP.O), and finally, almost twice as many digested bones as gnawed on the youngest levels (TP. Q and TP.R) (Figure 6). In order to examine the effects of the material recovery methods on the distributions, the specimens from flotation (which usually provides mostly small specimens, frequently digested) were excluded from the compilation. Only in one case did the incidence of the digested bone significantly decrease, from 6.7 to 2.6%; this was observed in Space 414, but does not significantly alter the value for the level (TP.Q; Table 1).

Figure 6

Çatalhöyük East, TP middens. Frequencies of the gnawed and digested bones within the spaces in each level in the TP sequence.

The animal bones in the TP assemblages range from weathering stage 0 (unweathered) to stage 3 (moderately weathered). There were no specimens with weathering stage 4 or 5 (heavily and very heavily weathered). Many bones (ca. 60%) exhibited stage 2 (slightly weathered) than any other stage. The weathering profile differs between levels TP.M–TP.O and levels TP.Q–TP.R, shifting about one weathering stage from 2 to 1 (very slightly weathered) (Figure 7). Unfortunately, the significance of this shift cannot be statistically ascertained due to the lack of data from the missing level (TP.P). Some variation exists across spaces, with the broadest range of weathering stages being in Space 416. The percentage of bones that are abraded and percentage of specimens that display root etching is insignificant, being less than 0.1% (Table 1).

Figure 7

Çatalhöyük East, TP middens. Weathering profile of animal bones within the spaces in each level in the TP sequence. Abbreviations: 0–3 weathering stages; 0: unweathered; 1: very slightly weathered; 2: slightly weathered; and 3: moderately weathered.

A prominent feature of TP middens is the presence of gypsum on bone surfaces and as infillings in cracks in the bones.

The value of the CI (%) for the carpals and tarsals in the TP assemblage shows that they are, on average, 96.3% complete skeletal elements (Table 1). Since astragalus and central and fourth tarsals would likely provide the most reliable indication of post-burial fragmentation (Marean, 1991), these were checked separately. Despite the small sample, their CI is high. The proportion of these specimens that are parts of an entire skeletal element (% Whole Index) was 76.5% for both caprines and cattle (Table 1). Both humerus and tibia are represented more frequently by distal parts in the assemblage (Table 1). This is true separately for both caprines and cattle. There is no balanced representation of both the parts at any level.

4.2 Micromorphological Analysis

The three slides analyzed from the TP Area have previously been shown to appear largely homogenized, with a massive structure and little fine stratification, especially when compared with the deeply buried deposits in earlier parts of the site (Shillito & Matthews, 2013). The inclusions in these deposits are similar to elsewhere, including microcharcoal, phytoliths, bone fragments, and architectural debris. A more detailed focus on the bone inclusions within the deposits shows these inclusions to be poorly orientated. Occasional fine banding of material such as animal dung within the homogenous groundmass suggest that fine layering may have once been present. The presence of highly articulated reed phytoliths embedded within the groundmass also suggests that these were deposited as whole plants which have later been subjected to a degree of bioturbation. Large quantities of gypsum are present in these deposits (Figure 8), seen in thin section in a range of crystal forms including lenticular crystals and microcrystalline forms. Moreover, localized microfaunal burrowing and some plant root activities were noted. The depositional histories of the deposits, and therefore the faunal remains within, may be inferred through the sediment characteristics and associated assemblages.

Figure 8

TP Area midden photos showing: (a) excavation area, (b) midden section studied, and (c) bands of gypsum nodules and lack of extensive fine stratification.

Micromorphological analysis of the selected midden units has shown varying percentages of bone within sub-units. Much of this was present in abundances of less than 5% (Shillito & Matthews, 2013). Further observation of these inclusions, and their micro-context, can provide information on the preservation processes of the bones.

A total of 214 bone fragments were observed, ranging in size from less than 0.5 mm to 4 cm in length (Figure 9). The majority of bone inclusions are embedded and unorientated with a sub-rounded to sub-angular morphology. The majority of fragments are present as discrete isolated fragments embedded within the sedimentary matrix, and in some cases as clusters of fragments from single bones that have degraded in situ. This process can be seen in sub-unit 8932s9, where a larger bone fragment has been subjected to chemical weathering in situ (Figure 10b). The bone shows a loss of internal structure, with extremities showing dissolution and fragmentation. Further physical disturbance may then disperse these microscopic fragments throughout the sediment. Individual fragments display a “cracked” surface texture (Figure 10c and d). Occasional coprolites are present, some containing digested bone fragments (Figure 10a).

Figure 9

Summary of size distribution of bone fragments in thin sections (unit 8932, TP Area, Level TP.Q, Çatalhöyük East).

Figure 10

Micrographs from unit 8932 showing: (a) digested bone fragments within omnivore coprolite, (b) 4 cm fragment of bone showing loss of internal structure, weathering, and fragmentation at extremities, (c) and (d) highly weathered microscopic bone fragments, (e) bone fragment embedded within redeposited “mortar” fragment in PPL (plane-polarized light) and (f) XPL (cross-polarized light).

There are features which give insight into the deposits’ history (Figure 10e). Occasional fine bands of rounded and burned aggregates are associated with the sweeping of hearth areas. Furthermore, laminated bands of animal dung indicate trampling. Compared to the earlier middens, there is very little fine stratification of the deposits, and previous analysis comparing these deposits with earlier middens in the South and North Areas has suggested that this is the result of post-depositional reworking and transformation of the deposits (Shillito & Matthews, 2013).

5.1 Faunal Assemblage Composition

The composition of the species forming part of the Çatalhöyük TP Late Neolithic assemblage, which is dominated by caprine and followed by cattle, is consistent with the general pattern of the Çatalhöyük subsistence strategy, in regards to the South.P-T levels. The dominance of sheep over goats (8:1), and caprines as such over other species, is typical of the Central Anatolian Neolithic from the earliest Neolithic onwards (Arbuckle, 2008). The distinct proportion of human bones in the assemblage (2.7% NISP; 0.1% DZ), seen especially in the TP.R level, can be explained as the result of burial disturbances, since TP burials are primarily disturbed loose, followed by primarily disturbed, tertiary, and secondary (Whitehouse et al., 2014, Figure 6.13).

Although most animal bones were loosely dispersed in the middens, some were found in anatomical order, suggestive of minimal disturbance. This implies some degree of coherence of these deposits, which were attributed to each TP level and to most spaces. This is especially true for caprine elements, which in fact can be correlated with their significant contribution to the subsistence level and thus to waste disposal. None of the associated bone groups seem to be deliberately placed in the middens, given the anatomical parts they represent (mostly butchery waste) and their detailed contexts. However, the social significance of faunal remains is well evidenced in other TP contexts at the site, as recently shown (Pawłowska, 2020a,b; Pawłowska & Barański, 2020; Pawłowska & Marciszak, 2018). At the microscale, “in situ” fragmentation can be seen whereby bone fragments undergo gradual dissolution, fragmentation into smaller pieces, and eventual reworking and distribution throughout the sediment.

Midden densities are not uniform in the sequence, and show significant variation in the distribution of bone between the TP levels. The gradual decrease in the density of bone in the middens over time is most likely related to a decrease in population in the Late Neolithic or to changes in disposal waste or in refuse management practice (Pawłowska, 2020a,b); they could also be caused by the sample size. Examining the density of other cultural materials, such as obsidian and pottery in TP middens, should help investigate this issue.

5.2 Taphonomic Processes and their Implications for Interpretation

5.2.2 Gnawing and Digestion

Gnawing and digestion can result from larger carnivores, rodents, and omnivores. These processes cause surface modification, and can also move bones from their original depositional loci (Kent, 1981; Lyman, 1994; Marean & Bertino, 1994). In the case of the TP assemblages, this seems to have had a minor effect.

Evidence of carnivore activity occurs in the form of gnawing and digestion marks (Figure 11) usually visible in the assemblage as punctures, pits, scores, and furrows (Binford, 1981), and the presence of coprolite (Figure 12). Although these marks are present, indicating that dogs have access to the middens, the damage and destruction of the assemblage is infrequent at less than 5%. There are a number of possible explanations for this. One factor may be that there were only a small number of dogs present; alternatively or additionally, it may be the case that the refuse was not attractive to carnivores. According to Blumenschine (1988), the incidence of carnivore-gnawed bone pieces is low in assemblages in which the marrow had been removed and the bones broken prior to carnivore action. Thus, only those which retain the greatest food value are subjected to carnivore actions. Generally, this can be seen to be true for the fragmentation of TP assemblages (Pawłowska, 2014). The identification of digested bone contained within human coprolites (identified unequivocally through analysis of sterol and bile acid profiles) in the TP Area indicates one depositional pathway for digested bone (Shillito et al., 2011), and also provides support for the hypothesis that bone marrow was consumed by humans.

Figure 11

Digested bones (from midden deposit, unit 12277, Space 437, TP Area, Level TP.Q, Çatalhöyük East). (Photo by K. Pawłowska).

Figure 12

Animal coprolite (from midden deposit, unit 17670, Space 420, TP Area, Level TP.M, Çatalhöyük East). (Photo by K. Pawłowska).

Generally discarded bones need to be exposed for a period of time rather than rapidly buried in order for carnivores to gain access. This is true for many of the pre-XII level midden deposits which have been worked over extensively by dogs, in contrast to many of the Level V middens that show particularly rapid burial and excellent preservation, while the TP Area middens are more slowly accumulated and slightly degraded (Russell, Twiss, Pawłowska, & Henton, 2006).

The size of the digested pieces in the TP samples (2 cm-long pieces predominating over the whole sequence) is within the size range that could be swallowed by dogs. Our results show that the proportions of gnawed and digested bones change in the most recent levels (TP.Q and TP.R) in favor of digested bones. The high frequency of digested bones, resulting from the decay of feces, in the TP.Q and TP.R levels suggests that carnivores were present on the site for longer than would be needed to simply search the waste, or else that they were more abundant. It may also imply greater occupation on the surfaces of the recent levels by humans and carnivores, as is well correlated with the greater number of open spaces at Çatalhöyük at this time. Alternatively, it may indicate a practice of collection and gathering of feces in one place by inhabitants, as it has been noted by Russell and Twiss (2017) on earlier levels of the site.

Although some samples showed evidence of rodent gnawing, indicative of rodent presence and some subaerial exposure of samples, this occurred infrequently. It seems that the extraction of calcium and other minerals from bone by rodents (Klippel & Synstelien, 2007 with further references) occurred only at the times proper to TP.M and TP.R levels, leaving modifications in the form of paired, broad, shallow, and flat-bottomed grooves.

The effects of pigs on bone attrition, well recognized by Greenfield (1988), has been excluded in this case, due to the low proportion of pig elements – mostly isolated teeth (Figure 13) – and because of the lack of long shovel-type teeth marks, which, according to Greenfield, are the major characteristics allowing pig-chewed bones to be distinguished from dog-chewed bones.

Figure 13

Isolated pig tooth (from burial chamber, unit 15821, Space 327, TP Area, Level TP.O, Çatalhöyük East). (Photo by K. Pawłowska).

5.2.8 Animal Burrowing

The tunnels of the Asia Minor ground squirrel or Anatolian souslik (Spermophilus xanthoprymnus; Bennett, 1835) are well recognized at Çatalhöyük (Figure 14). The actions of the burrowing animals are the main reworking process to affect both architectural structures and deposits (e.g., middens and infills) within the site. Regular burrows, whether used for nesting, hibernation, or feeding, vary in depth, with feeding burrow reaching up to 4 m (De Meester, 1970). When the burrows of fossorial mammals are back-filled with soil, krotovinas are created. These are tubes of material of a different character from their surroundings (Paton, Humphreys, & Mitchell, 1995). Burrowing animals can push artifacts from lower layers up to the surface, in this way placing older artifacts into a younger stratigraphic context (Kelly & Thomas, 2012). In other cases, size-sorted artifacts are noted in burrows, causing artificial concentration of small materials to appear near to the surface, with larger materials deeper (Bocek, 1986; Wood & Johnson, 1978). In the case of Çatalhöyük, these burrows are observed in the field, but there are no data on the scale of this phenomenon. Krotovinas are distinctive in thin section, creating voids which are infilled with homogenized fine material.

Figure 14

Çatalhöyük East. Example of actions of burrowing animals. (Photo by K. Pawłowska).

Faunal burrowing is distinctive at the microscale. No mammal burrowing was evident in the TP samples selected, though it should be noted that micromorphology sampling deliberately avoids areas with these larger disturbances. Reworking from insects and smaller fauna is apparent in some areas. By assumption, earthworms and insects also contribute to soil disturbance (Stein, 1983). The disruptive effect of earthworms is also recognized in archaeological deposits, where it reworks the matrix of the site, disturbing material of less than 2 mm in size. For example, earthworms may alter the botanical assemblage by selectively removing small plant remains, such as seeds (Stein, 1983), or moving material between depositional contexts. Features suggestive of insect and other microfaunal burrowing are seen in thin section.

Rainwash is also observed at the microscale, particularly in conjunction with burrows, which provide channels for the movement of water. Size-sorted, water-laid particles accumulate within these burrows.