Techniques and Ideas. Zigzag Motif, Barbed Line, and Shaded Band in the Meso-Neolithic Bone Assemblage at Zamostje 2, Volga-Oka Region (Russia)

4.1 Zigzag

4.1.1 Zigzag: Zigzag Types

A characteristic feature of bone/antler implement decoration in Zamostje 2 is the use of various types of zigzags, both in terms of shape and ornamentation technique (Table S1^[1]). At the moment, six main types are distinguished. The underlying criteria are the number of lines that form each zigzag segment and their discontinuity.

Simple zigzag (Figure 2(1)). It is made of short, multidirectional regular lines or angles. Each segment is represented by a single line. This is the most common type and is revealed by 42 zigzag pieces in all layers. It is similar to the motif “h” by Clark, no 13 by Loze, and no A24 by Płonka.

Figure 2

Zamostje 2. Types of zigzag images: (1) simple zigzag; (2) double zigzag; (3) zigzag with three or more parallel lines; (4) zigzag-shaped lines; (5) relief zigzag in the groove; (6) zigzag from other elements.

Double zigzag (Figure 2(2)). It is composed of short, more or less regularly paired lines. It occurs quite often (22 items); including always, when the zigzag is located across the artefact. Two artefacts were found in the layer with ceramics. It resembles motif no 15 by Loze.

Zigzag with three or more parallel lines (Figure 2(3)). Triple zigzag lines are observed in 3 cases, zigzags made up of 4 lines – in two cases, bundles of subparallel scratches making up a large zigzag – in at least 4 cases. The last variant resembles motif C12 by Płonka.

Zigzag-shaped (partly wavy) lines (Figure 2(4)) represent continuous extended lines with more or less pronounced teeth, mostly irregular; arranged in parallel, they sometimes fill completely the wide sides of objects. There are 14 items in total.

Embossed zigzag, deepened in the groove (Figure 2(5)). Very specific type of ornamentation typical for the site (Lozovski, 1997, pp. 41–42, etc.). It is a continuous zigzag (in some places wavy) convex line because of the lowering of the surrounding relief, shaped as a flat narrow groove. The ornamental belt is about 5 mm wide. There are five items in total.

Zigzag built from other elements (Figure 2(6)) (e.g. “ladders” or transversal little lines). Two items in total.

Two more pieces show a simple zigzag that is incorporated into a complex pattern of shaded triangles and is apparently inseparable from it (Figure 4(1)). It is close to motives “k” and “l” by Clark, as well as nos 16 and 17 by Loze. The start of filling with shading is also clearly visible on the third artefact.

4.1.2 Zigzag: Application Techniques

Three basic techniques underlie the production of zigzags on the surface of bone tools. First of all, engraving (Figure 3(1)) is a universal way to decorate objects made from organic materials. Fine engraved lines with different pressure (i.e. depth) and accuracy are present in Zamostje 2. Any flint blade or flake with a sharp projection or angle of fracture could serve as a tool. This technique was used for simple, double zigzags, a part of multiline zigzags and zigzag-shaped lines. The section of engraved lines is predominantly triangular, with different inclination, sometimes rounded.

Figure 3

Zamostje 2. Application techniques: (1) engraving; (2) scraping; (3) carving.

The second decoration technique was revealed on three knives made of elk ribs. It implies surface scraping with a wide, unretouched or damaged flint blade (Figure 3(2)). Zigzags are large, rough, form bundles of lines (type 3); the relief is very shallow.

Carving (cutting) of an ornament with a deep relief (Figure 3(3)) represented a clear technological chain of operations which can be clearly seen on several unfinished tools. First, two parallel deep and wide (up to 1 mm) grooves were scraped out along the entire length; then, in a checkerboard pattern, sub-triangular depressions were cut out towards each other, which formed a more or less regular zigzag line. This technology is associated only with this type of ornament (type 5). Among the prehistoric sites of the Upper Volga region, it is known only in Zamostje 2, with the sole exception: another object (an axe) with a similar ornament, without a clear stratigraphic context, was found at the site Ivanovskoye II (Kostyleva & Utkin, 2010, pp. 54–55); the authors attribute it to the Bronze Age.

Drilling and pointillé techniques were not recorded in the materials of Zamostje 2.

4.1.3 Zigzag: Context of Use

In most cases (50 items = 59%), the zigzag is the only ornamental motif on an artefact. This indicates a certain well-established semantic value of this sign. Zigzag in combination with other elements appears less frequently (26%). These are, for example, simple straight lines, a line with “eyelashes or dots,” single rhombs, “ladders,” oblique shading, or cuts (Figures 4(16), 5(1, 4–5 and 12), 7(1 and 5), and 8(14)). The zigzag acts as a system-forming element in a complex ornament of shaded triangles (3%) (Figure 4(1 and 12) and 5(18)). Finally, in some cases, the zigzag is used in complex compositions as an off-centre element (12%) (Figure 4(3 and 6)). The narrative of the compositions is always individual. The double zigzag, located across items, apparently played a demarcating role for different decorated zones (Figures 5(8), 8(7), and 10(9)).

Figure 4

Zamostje 2 (1, 3–10, 12–20), Ozerki 5 (11). (1, 3–6) elk rib knives; (7–10, 13–16) slotted arrowheads with spikes; (11–12, 18–20) miniature (hair) pins. Late–Final Mesolithic (1, 3, 5, 7–20); undefined (4, 6). (2 – after Clark, 1936, p. 169; 11 – after Zhilin, 2014, Figure 132: 10).

Figure 5

Zamostje 2 (1, 4–13, 15, 17–19, 21), Kamen Dyrovaty (2–3, 16, 21), Shigir Peat-bog (14). (1 and 4) spearheads; (2–3, 12–16 and 20) arrowheads; (5–10, 19, 21) elk rib knives; (11 and 17) scapula knives. Mesolithic (2–5, 8–16, 18–20) Early Neolithic (1, 7, 17, 21) undefined (6). Figures 4–6, 8, 10 by V. Lozovski. (2–3, 16, 21 after Serikov, 2001, Figures 42: 10; 49: 7; 51: 6, 9; Savchenko, 2020, Figure 6: 28).

In general, the zigzag is found on almost all types of tools that have been decorated, but its occurrence is uneven (Figure 6).

Figure 6

Zamostje 2. Correlation of ornamental motifs with types of bone (antler) tools. a – Mesolithic artefacts and without exact chronological context (probably Mesolithic); b – Early Neolithic artefacts.

The correlation of the zigzag motif with slotted arrowheads with a sharp pin-like barb is the most characteristic for Zamostje 2: 67% of the points (points with pins and one base) (Figure 4(7–10)) and 29% of broken off pins (Figure 4(13–16)) are decorated with a simple or double zigzag, eight fragments in total. A similar pin with a zigzag was also found in Ozerki 5 (Zhilin, 2014, Figure 124: 11). Another arrowhead of this type shows diverging “ladders” (Figure 8(5)); no other motifs of ornamentation were found.

A zigzag is sometimes found on needle-shaped arrowheads of the Late and Final Mesolithic (five items in total). On a long, thin item, short double zigzag “snakes” are discontinuously located along the entire length; three times they are separated by a belt of short cuts (Figure 5(12)) (Lozovski, 1996, Figure 21: 13, 1997, p. 38). A similar composition was found on a dagger from a geographically distant but chronologically close site Beg-er Vil (Kayser & Bernier, 1988). In other cases, it is located close to the tip or along the axis of the tool (Figure 5(13 and 15)). In general, the share of ornamented arrowheads in the site is small – 5%.

Miniature (hair) pins are the second type of tools exclusively associated with the zigzag (Figure 4(12 and 17–20)). Covered with notches, the edges have a wavy outline, the base often shows a zoomorphic end in the shape of a “duck’s head” (for more details, Lozovskaya, 2021), and both sides are decorated with a zigzag (ten specimens): simple zigzag or zigzag-shaped lines. A similar pin with a zigzag was found at the site Ozerki 5, layer IV (Figure 4(11)) (Zhilin, 2014, Figure 132 :10).

Elk rib knives represent an abundant category of tools with a wide functional purpose (Clemente Conte & Girya, 2003). They are characterized by surface decoration, zoomorphic handle tops (duck head, etc., Lozovskaya, 2021), and sometimes cuts along the edges, creating waviness (Figures 5(9 and 10) and 8(14)). All the first four types of zigzags and two main ornamentation techniques – engraving and scraping – are revealed on knives (Figure 5(5–10 and 20–21)). The zigzag is predominantly longitudinal, in very rare cases (five items), a transverse double zigzag as a part of a composition (Figures 5(8) and 8(7)).

The zigzag on two scapula knife fragments looks non-typical: these are “ladders” arranged in a zigzag and a large double zigzag pattern along the edge of the second item (Figures 5(11) and 8(10)). The third item shows a bifacial zigzag line (Figure 5(17)).

On spearheads, the zigzag is very rare (four items) and comes up in unusual combinations. On an artefact from the layer with ceramics, two lines of a low zigzag, sometimes doubled, with dots on the tops, run along the edges of the convex side; the teeth outlined by it are shaded (Figure 5(1)). On the second item, a transverse double zigzag running from the prong is decorated with a lozenge on both sides (Figure 5(4)).

Sickle-shaped tools with a deep wide groove for inserts on the concave side are associated almost exclusively with a carved zigzag. In total, there are four such tools (including one fragment) (Figure 7(1–4)) and one blank (not included) (Lozovskaya, 2001, Figure 10: 2). In all cases, ornamental bands are located in the centre of the lateral wide sides and follow the curve of the blank. The two broken blanks indicate that both the groove and the engraved lines were cut from the distal end to the base of the antler (Figure 7(2)). On one item, the presence of a large hole for the handle and roughly shaped “ears” brings the tool closer to the well-known “elk head” (the staff head like a spike hammer) (Figure 7(3)) (Lozovski, 1997, Figure 7: 5–6, etc.). Only one item of this type is decorated differently: with a double transverse zigzag and branched lines with dots (Figure 10(9)). The only exception is a dagger fragment with inserts decorated by one band of relief zigzag (see below) (Figures 7(5) and 10(5)).

Figure 7

Zamostje 2 (1–7, 9–17), Ivanovskoye II (8). (1–4) sickle-shaped tools; (5) slotted dagger; (6) wooden snake figurine; (7, 9–11) engraved pebbles; (12, 14–15) snake-shaped knives and pins; (13) spoon; (16) ornamented elk head (side views); (17) handle. Late Mesolithic (2, 4–7, 9, 12–17) Early Neolithic – 11; undefined – 1, 3, 8, 10. Figures 7, 9–13 by V. Lozovski, 17 – by D. Cherevko (8 – after Kostyleva & Utkin, 2010, Figure 13: 11).

Figure 8

Zamostje 2. (1–5, 8, 8a) Arrowheads and spear points; (6–7, 7a, 9, 12–13) tool fragments; (10–11, 14) scapula and elk rib knives. Late Mesolithic (1–6, 9–14). Early Neolithic 7, 7a, 8, 8a. Figures 11 and 14 by V. Lozovski.

In addition, there are three exclusive artefacts with a zigzag: a fully ornamented elk head with zigzags along both sides (the cheeks) (Figure 7(16)) (Lozovski, 1997, Figure 7: 5), a spoon with a double zigzag discontinuously located along the edge (Figure 7(13)) and elk rib handle for some tool with bifacial large zigzag made from rows of transverse short lines (Figure 7(17)).

At the same time, the zigzag pattern is altogether absent on some types of tools (categories): for example on simple daggers, piercers, and tools made of beaver mandibles.

4.1.4 Zigzag on Other Materials

For a more complete understanding of some features of the zigzag motif’s traditional use on the site, a few words should be said about decorated artefacts from other materials. On engraved pebbles – the series in Zamostje 2 consists of 94 objects – the zigzag motif is very rare (five items) and clearly has no independent role. On two pebbles (one comes from the layer with ceramics, the second without context), it is inscribed in the registers (the registers seem to be characteristic of the Early Neolithic), along with the transverse and oblique shading (Figure 7(10 and 11)) (Lozovski, 1997). A complex composition with “ladders” and a complicated zigzag is observed on an item from the Late Mesolithic Upper layer (Figure 7(7)). The composition from shaded triangles echoes the above mentioned knife from the same layer (Figure 7(9)). In general, this may indicate a different semantic content of the zigzag image on the stone.

Among the wooden objects, there is a paddle-shaped plate with a bifacial double large zigzag (Lozovskaya & Lozovski, 2016, p. 66, Figure 5: 1), formed by small triangular cutouts and a snake figurine carved from a piece of wood in the shape of a zigzag (Figure 7(6)).

4.2 Ladders

This type of ornament represents a composition of two parallel engraved lines, the inner space between which is filled with densely spaced transverse (or parallel to the object axis) lines – “crossbeams.” It is close to the motive “f” (band with vertical shading) of Clark (1936, p. 169); it also resembles the motif F5 of T. Płonka (Płonka, 2003, p. 212, 319). In most cases, engraving is shallow, but the fine lines are drawn clearly and confidently. The width of the “ladders” ranges from 2 to 3.5 mm, and the distance between the rungs is 1–1.5 mm. In general, they are standardly made, with the exception of two pieces (Figure 8(8 and 12)). The angle of the fragmented blade or flake, including a slightly damaged one, judging by the bottom relief of some negatives, possibly served as a tool for engraving. First, the longitudinal guiding lines of the ornament were applied, and then they were filled with transverse lines, often going beyond the bounding lines.

A total of 12 items with this type of ornament (Figure 8) were found in the Late and Final Mesolithic layers and 2 items in the layer with ceramics (EN) (Table S1). On three artefacts, the “ladders” are heavily damaged by fractures, and it is incorrect to speculate on their exact location (Figure 8(7, 9 and 13)). The standard is the arrangement of two “ladders” at an angle to each other, whereas their ends are sometimes at some distance or close. The composition usually goes from one edge of the item to the other (at the needle-shaped tip along the entire perimeter, Figure 8(3)), which gives it a character of completeness (integrity).

There are two variants of “ladders” compositions orientation: the first variant is along the axis of the tool at an angle of 90–120° (four specimens) – an arrowhead with a groove for flint bladelets (bifacial decoration) (Figure 8(5)), medial fragments of a needle-shaped arrowhead and a point with a triangular section (two sides) (Figure 8(3 and 4)), and a handle of the elk rib knife (Figure 8(6)). The second variant is across the longitudinal axis of items (three pieces). In this case, the angle between the “ladders” is sharp; its apex is directed towards the tip of the tool, like that of elk rib knives (on the zoomorphic head of handle or they “open” towards it, Figure 8(11)), and on the Early Neolithic barbed spearhead (Figure 8(8)). In the latter case, the angle of “ladders” is probably inseparable from the extended hatching of the barb zone; it seems that the transverse lines dominate over the longitudinal ones. On a fragment of a scapula knife the “ladders” to a higher extent resemble a zigzag; their position should be considered as longitudinal in relation to the blade (Figure 8(10)).

The two needle-shaped arrowhead fragments show a different use of the “ladder” motif. Bands with vertical shading surround the rods around the perimeter. The width of the ladders varies significantly (Figure 8(1 and 2)).

A spatula-shaped artefact of unknown purpose from the Final Mesolithic layer is covered on both sides with an original ornament of longitudinal densely shaded stripes, slightly tapering towards a narrow handle (Figure 8(12)). The lines style, the shape of stripes, and their location are significantly different from the examples described above, so these bands can hardly be called “ladders.” It seems that the ornament was made on the blank before the final shape of the item was given.

4.2.1 “Ladders”: Context of Use

In at least six cases (43%), the “ladder” motif is associated with the projectile points (needle-shaped arrowheads, one slotted with a pin, a barbed spearhead, a point with a triangular section) (Figure 8(1–5 and 9)) and, in three more cases (21%), with elk rib knives (Figure 6). It should also be noted that all other slotted arrowheads, as shown above, were associated with the zigzag motif. An additional zigzag is also present on items; in particular, on a knife with a broken head (Figure 8(14)). In general, in almost all these cases, the depiction of the “ladder” motif followed a certain canon.

A completely different presentation of shaded bands (“ladder” motif?) was revealed on one item of unknown purpose (spatula?) (Figure 8(12)) and have not been interpreted yet.

Three broken tools with fragments of “ladders” (including one slotted tool Figure 8(9)) indicate only a possibility of combination with other ornamental elements, in which “ladders” are not dominant.

In general, this type of ornament was not widespread in the Volga-Oka region. An unexpected similarity in the longitudinal pair disposition of “ladders” is shown by a well-known artefact from Stensby (Zealand), dating from the Middle Mesolithic (Płonka, 2003, Figure 56: 1). But the whole composition, which includes an anthropomorph, is completely different.

4.3 “Line with Dots or Eyelashes”

This type of ornament, well known in its various pictorial interpretations in Northern and Western Europe (Clark: motif “a” and “c,” Loze: motif no 11, and Płonka: B2, B6–B10, etc.), in the Volga-Oka interfluve is also fairly specific and is typical only for the site Zamostje 2 (Lozovski, 2009, p. 9). It consists of “a deeply engraved line framed by dotted cavities or dashes-eyelashes.” (Lozovski, 1997, p. 39). Dots can be located on one or both sides of the main line; “eyelashes” are usually one-sided and directed at an angle to it. The latter were usually engraved in the same manner as the line, and the oval or sub-triangular dots were carved using small cuts. Dotted lines seem to predominate, but sometimes, it is difficult to distinguish them with certainty; therefore, we proceed from the fact that semantically they are very close to each other. A total of 21 artefacts have been studied (Table S1). By location of the lines, we can divide them into three variants.

Usually, lines were drawn along the longitudinal axis of tools. In the studied assemblage, however, a small group of items stands out, on which lines with “eyelashes” form closed figures. These are daggers with side grooves for flint inserts (four pieces): one item belongs to the Upper Mesolithic layer, and the others were found outside a clear chronological context (Table S1 and Figure 6). A whole dagger made of elk antler with two short grooves, the remains of a hole for tying at the end, and a bifacial ornament gives an idea of this type of tool (Figure 9(1)). The ornament, located at the same level as the central short grooves, consists of two symmetrical curved bands (7.5 cm long) formed by lines with eyelashes closed at the ends – the eyelashes are directed towards the inside of the figure – and a simple line in the centre; the ends of the bands are pointed. T. Płonka distinguishes it as a specific motif F2, but it seems that it is only present in Zamostje 2 (Płonka, 2003, p. 319). Three other daggers are presented in fragments: one has the ends of four similar figures, but without the central line (Figure 9(2)); the second one has the same short “snakes” with outward teeth (Figure 9(4)), both objects are with double-sided ornament; and a third fragment with large rectangles with triangular teeth along one side (Figure 9(3)). All engravings are deep.

Figure 9

Zamostje 2. (1–2) slotted daggers; (3–6, 8) fragments of slotted tools; (7) knife. Late Mesolithic (4, and 6–8); Early Neolithic (5); undefined (1–3).

Straight lines with dots or “eyelashes” are the most numerous (12 specimens). Usually, they go along the edges of items, as if outlining them on both sides. This is clearly seen on four medial tool fragments similar to knives or large spearheads from elk long bones (Figure 10(1–4)), one almost a complete knife (Figure 10(10)) and a needle-shaped rod from the layer with ceramics (Figure 10(8); the denticles or lines on these items are shallow and short, mostly perpendicular to the lines. Deep lines with large dots of various shapes and directions are characteristic for massive spear points with a groove (two pieces) or daggers (one piece) belonging to the Upper Mesolithic layer (Figures 9(6 and 8) and 10(5)). The ornamentation is bilateral, but not symmetrical, consists of two or three lines, and on the dagger this motif is met in combination with a band of relief zigzag (see above) (Figure 7(5)). Another fragment of a spear point (probably) handle has a similar shape of dots and lines, slightly curving at the ends (Figure 10(7)). The beveled tool 45° deserves special mention – it is a very rarely decorated category of tools – with two parallel, clearly cut lines with eyelashes: closer to the edge, a line with long oblique regular dashes along the entire preserved length, and the second – with short cuts of different directions in the middle part of the line (Figure 10(11)).

Figure 10

Zamostje 2. (1–4, 6–8, 12) Tool fragments; (5) slotted dagger; (9) slotted sickle-shaped tool; (10) dagger (knife); (11) beveled tool.

The third group, curved and branching lines, includes five dissimilar objects: an elk scapula knife with a side back (Figure 9(7)) and a knife handle from an elk rib (Figure 10(6)); small sickle-shaped tool (Figure 10(9)) – lines with eyelashes/dots in the centre repeat the curve of the item; on one side, oblique lines with the same pattern depart from the centre line and go to the concave and convex edges. Another “sickle-shaped tool” with a relief zigzag is complemented by curved lines with eyelashes along the groove (Figure 7(1)). Finally, one tool of unclear purpose is covered with an ornament as “herringbone”: oblique lines with long, downward-directed dashes-eyelashes extend in different directions from the central deep stria (Figure 10(12)). A remote parallel to this object can be found at the site Pogostishche 15, where a bone plate is decorated with a similar herringbone ornament composed by lines with eyelashes (Kosorukova, Lukintseva, Voronkov, & Grinina, 2020, p. 16, 18).