Faunal Remains Associated with Human Cremations: The Chalcolithic Pits 16 and 40 from the Perdigões Ditched Enclosures (Reguengos de Monsaraz, Portugal)

2.1 Materials and Contexts

The present study comprises the faunal assemblages associated with human cremated remains deposited in pit 16 and pit 40 of the Perdigões ditched enclosures (Reguengos de Monsaraz, Portugal) (Figure 1). These structures are part of a scenario located in the central area of the Perdigões ditched enclosures where the secondary depositions of cremated human remains were performed, both in pit structures and in the open air over a stone agglomeration (Valera et al., 2014; Valera, 2020) (Figure 2).

Figure 1

Location of Perdigões in the Iberian Peninsula and in the Alentejo region (a); magnetogram of the archaeological site with location of pits 16 and 40 (b); features with cremated remains in the central area of Perdigões (c) (after Valera, 2020).

Figure 2

Detail of the conic-shaped deposit containing cremations in pit 16 (a); profile of pit 16 (b); aspect of the human cremated remains in pit 40 (c); profile of pit 40 (d) (after Valera, 2020).

Pit 16 is a circular feature with a 0.92 m diameter at the top, 1.50 m at the base, and a depth of 0.90 m. In the middle of the infilling, it presented a conical deposit of ashes and human cremated remains (corresponding to a minimum number of 9 individuals) together with faunal bones and artifacts (anthropomorphic idols, arrowheads, pottery fragments, and a copper awl), most of them also burned. The formation of this context corresponded to one event, when the human remains, cremated elsewhere, were deposited in the pit already partially filled, and then covered by other deposits with unburned materials, but with no human remains. This deposition in stratigraphic unit 74 was dated between 2621 and 2350 cal BC (Perdigões Global Research Program – Radiocarbon database – www.perdigoes.org). The fauna under analysis comprise remains from the different infilling phases, from the bottom to the top: phase 1 [126, 125] (n = 34, 3.9%), phase 2 [124, 74, 72] (n = 432, 49.2%), and phase 3 [90, 76, 71, 68, 58] (n = 412; 46.9%) (Figure 3).

Figure 3

Selection of materials from pit 16: (a) Oryctolagus cuniculus metatarsals with burning in degree 2; (b) Sus sp. metapodial distal portion with burning in degree 3; (c) Sus sp. metatarsal 5 proximal portion with burning in degree 5; (d) Sus sp. phalanges with burning in degree 5; (e) Canis familiaris radius and ulna with concretions; (f) Canis sp. axis; (g) Sus cf. domesticus humerus distal portion; (h) Sus sp. cranium left half with anthropogenic breakage.

Pit 40 is a larger circular feature, 2.5 m wide and 0.80 m deep. It presented two postholes in the center indicating that it had some sort of roof. Several phases of secondary depositions of human cremated and some unburned remains were identified, in associations with faunal bones and votive materials (anthropomorphic idols, pottery shards, copper awls, beads, and arrowheads), most of them also burned. The assemblage of human remains studied so far represents a minimum number of 240 individuals dated by several radiocarbon dates to the Chalcolithic. These individuals are from stratigraphic unit 193 which represents the early depositions from phase 1, with the remaining cremains from phase 1 and the total assemblages from phases 2 and 3 still incompletely studied. Available published data represents ∼60% of the full sample from pit 40 (Godinho et al., 2019). The formation of this context resulted from several depositional events spread over time but concentrated in the middle/third quarter of the 3rd millennium BC. It is possible that materials from different chronologies with different provenances were deposited together in each event. The fauna under analysis comprises remains from the different infilling sequence phases, from the bottom to the top: phase 1 [299, 193] (n = 209, 89.3%), phase 2 [290, 269] (n = 24, 10.3%), and phase 3 [203] (n = 1, 0.4%) (Figure 4).

Figure 4

Selection of materials from pit 40: (a) Sus sp. metacarpal 3 proximal portion with burning in degrees 2 and 3; (b) Sus sp. proximal and mesial phalanges with burning in degrees 3 and 5; (c) Oryctolagus cuniculus femur with burning in degree 3; (d) hyoid bone burned in degrees 2 and 3 and detail of cutmark; (e) Cervus elaphus proximal phalange modified by thinning; (f) Equus sp. proximal phalange modified by thinning the mesial and distal portions and burning in degree 4; (g) Equus sp. proximal phalange with mesial and distal thinning and burning in degrees 2 and 3.

All the available radiocarbon dates (n = 14, Perdigões Global Research Program – Radiocarbon database – www.perdigões.org/en/base-de-dados/) were obtained over human remains. Their Bayesian statistical treatment indicates they cover a period between 2700/2600 and 2400/2200 cal BC, showing that this context was progressively formed, even if occasionally reuniting materials with different chronological and contextual origins. All material culture associated, that is also burned, is typologically compatible with the scope of the obtained chronology. Fauna remains are in association with the human remains and material culture within these structures and integrate the same deposits. Stratigraphic and taphonomical evidence indicates that human, artefact and faunal remains were deposited together along with the several episodes of deposition identified. So globally, human, material culture and faunal remains can be considered generically contemporary within the time span covered by the absolute chronology. This must not be confused with the time span of the use of the structure, which could be shorter, since we are dealing with secondary depositions. Within that scope, their association can be evaluated by structure and by phase within the structure. These phases were stratigraphically defined and each one might congregate several depositional events that might themselves mix different original contexts. Although how, where and when these mixings occurred is difficult to establish without information about the contexts of origin, what is present and what is absent, and what could or could not be mixed in the funerary context.

2.2 Methods

Fauna analysis followed common methodologies in zooarchaeology and taphonomy (Lyman, 1994; Reitz & Wing, 2008). All faunal remains from pits 16 and 40 were analysed. The votive “idols” produced from equid and red deer phalanges are included to further assess taphonomical evidence and discuss the formation of these contexts. Their in-depth description and discussion of their perceived ritual function and/or prevalence in other regional funerary contexts were already considered elsewhere (Valera, 2015). Remains were anatomically and taxonomically identified or tentatively grouped in basic bone (long and flat bone, undetermined) and weight groups, hereinafter WG (WG 1: <20 kg, WG 2: 20–100 kg, WG 3: 100–300 kg, WG 4: >300 kg). Biometrical data were obtained using a digital Lux calliper following von den Driesch (1976) and other authors in specific cases (Albarella, Davis, Detry, & Rowley-Conwy, 2005; Davis, 1996; Payne & Bull, 1988). Biometrical and morphological information was used to try to differentiate between similar species of bovine, swine and caprine (e.g., Albarella et al., 2005; Zeder & Lapham, 2010; Zeder & Pilaar, 2010). Data is presented by using the Number of Specimens (NSP), Number of Identified Specimens (NISP) and Minimum Number of Elements (MNE) (Binford, 1984; Grayson, 1984).

Breakage was evaluated based on the size of the remains, the analysis of shaft length and circumference completeness, and cortical tissue fracture outline, angle and edge after Villa and Mahieu (1991). Bone and tooth were recorded according to relative preservation (<25, 25–49, 50–74, 75–99, 100%), presence of bone portions (e.g., proximal epiphysis, diaphysis plus proximal epiphysis) and surfaces (e.g., anterior, posterior, medial and lateral). Bone surface modifications (BSM) related to anthropogenic breakage and processing or consumption were documented according to their morphology, position and intensity (Binford, 1981; Blumenschine, Marean, & Capaldo, 1996; Shipman, 1981; Stiner et al., 1995).

After Cáceres (2002) and other studies (Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994; Nicholson, 1993; Shipman et al., 1984; Stiner et al., 1995) bone colour related to burning damage was recorded according to degrees: 0 = absent; 1 = lightly burned with some light brown spots; 2 = lightly burned with a relatively homogenous (darker) brown colour throughout the bone surface; 3 = carbonized with a blackish colour; 4 = greyish tonalities with occasional blue inclusions; 5 = calcinated with white colour. Different colours appearing on the same surface or the external and internal surfaces of bones were recorded, together with the location and relative (%) area of the bone surfaces. The presence of thumbnail fractures and warping (Binford, 1963) was also documented. The application of these methodologies secured the possibility of comparing our data with the results from the analysis of human remains (Godinho et al., 2019; Silva et al., 2015).

Other taphonomical indicators that can give information on the depositional environment of the context were recorded. The presence of weathering followed the stages proposed by Behrensmeyer (1978). Root etching, chemical erosion, oxide precipitation, and concretions were qualitatively assessed after Almeida (2017) according to degrees: 0 = absent; 1 = lightly affected with isolated alteration present in <25% of the surface; 2 = lightly affected with alteration normally isolated present in 25–49% of the surface; 3 = moderately affected with alterations normally superimposed and present in 50–75% of the surface; 4 = highly affected with several alterations superimposed and present in >75% of the surface.

3.1 Anatomy and Taxonomy

3.2 Taphonomy

3.2.1 Pit 16

A total of 87% of the assemblage consists of remains with a maximum size of less than 5 cm, 12% between 5 and 10 cm, and 1% over 10 cm. The smaller fragments predominate in all phases but fragments with 5–10 cm are more abundant (17%) in phase 3 in comparison to phases 2 (8%) and 1 (3%). Shaft completeness (n = 119) is low with 68% (n = 81) having <25 and 28% (n = 33) between 25 and 50% of their original length. Shaft circumference follows this tendency with a higher abundance of remains with <25% (n = 92, 77%). Fracture analysis (n = 221) shows the higher frequency of oblique (n = 79, 32%) and longitudinal (n = 100, 45%) outlines, right angles (n = 179, 81%), and jagged edges (n = 173, 78%). Recent breakage is recorded on 15% (n = 132) and complete elements correspond to 5% (n = 47) of the assemblage (Figure 5).

Figure 5

Relative abundance of the main taphonomical indicators observed in the assemblages from pit 16 and pit 40.

Cutmarks and tooth marks are scarce (n = 1, 0.1% for each). Breakage (n = 9, 1%) is represented by impact notches (n = 6), cones (n = 2) and cortical extractions (n = 2) that were recorded on taxonomically determined and undetermined remains mostly from WG 2. A swine left half skull with two possible impact notches that allowed the sectioning of the cranium is worth mentioning.

Boiling indicators were not recorded but burning damage is abundant (n = 200, 23%) (Tables 5 and 6). Warping (n = 2, 1%) and thumbnail fractures (n = 6, 3%) are uncommon. Double coloration is recorded in 13 (7%) fragments. Damage degree 1 (n = 2, 1%) is scarce in comparison to more developed degrees 2 (n = 53, 26.5%) and 3 (n = 70, 35%) that combined are greater than 50% (Figure 6). Degrees 4 (n = 26, 13%) and 5 (n = 49, 24.5%) are also common. The exposure of both external and internal bone tissues to fire damage (n = 92, 46%) is significant since it can also relate to the condition of remains prior to their burning. Remains have <50% of the surface burned (n = 15, 7.5%), between 80 and 90% (n = 2, 1%), and mainly completely burned surfaces (n = 183, 91.5%).

Table 5

Absolute and relative values on the presence of burning damage according to taxa and degree (D) of damage for pit 16

	D1	%	D2	%	D3	%	D4	%	D5	%	Total	%
Bos sp.					1	1.5					5	2.5
cf. Capra hircus									1	2	1	0.5
Ovis/Capra					6	9			4	8.2	10	5
Cervus elaphus			1	1.9			1	3.8			2	1
Sus sp.			3	5.8	3	4.5	2	7.7	7	14.3	15	7.5
Equus sp.							1	3.8			1	0.5
Oryctolagus cuniculus			5	9.6	1	1.5					6	3
Lepus sp.					1	1.5					1	0.5
Leporidae			1	1.9	2	3					3	1.5
Microfauna			1	1.9	1	1.5					2	1
Aves					1	1.5					1	0.5
Undetermined	2	100	41	78.8	51	76.1	22	84.6	37	75.5	153	76.5
Total	2	100	52	100	67	100	26	100	49	100	200	100
Undetermined
WG unknown			9	22	14	27.5	9	40.9	9	24.3	41	26.8
WG 1			3	7.3	9	17.6			2	5.4	14	9.2
WG 1/2			12	29.3	7	13.7	1	4.5	15	40.5	35	22.9
WG 2	2	100	9	22.0	12	23.5	10	45.5	10	27	43	28.1
WG 2/3			4	9.8	4	7.8	1	4.5	1	2.7	10	6.5
WG 3/4			2	4.9	3	5.9	1	4.5			6	3.9
WG 4			2	4.9	2	3.9					4	2.6
Total	2	100	41	100	51	100	22	100	37	100	153	100

Table 6

Absolute and relative values on the presence of burning damage according to element and degree (D) of damage for pit 16

	D1	%	D2	%	D3	%	D4	%	D5	%	Total	%
Antler/horn			1	1.9	4	5.6	1	3.8			6	3
Mandible	1	50	3	5.8	1	1.4					5	2.5
Loose tooth			1	1.9	6	8.5	1	3.8			8	4
Vertebra			1	1.9	3	4.2					4	2
Rib			9	17.3	11	15.5	5	19.2	6	12.2	31	15.5
Humerus					2	2.8					2	1
Radius					1	1.4					1	0.5
Metacarpal					1	1.4					1	0.5
Pelvis					1	1.4					1	0.5
Femur			2	3.8	1	1.4					3	1.5
Tibia			1	1.9					1	2	2	1
Calcaneus			1	1.9							1	0.5
Tarso-metatarsal					1	1.4					1	0.5
Metatarsal			4	7.7					1	2	5	2.5
Metapodial					2	2.8	1	3.8	4	8.2	7	3.5
Carpal/tarsal									1	2	1	0.5
Phalange 1							2	7.7	5	10.2	7	3.5
Phalange 2					1	1.4	1	3.8	1	2	3	1.5
Phalange 3									1	2	1	0.5
Phalange									1	2	1	0.5
Long bone	1	50	13	25	11	15.5	3	11.5	11	22.4	39	19.5
Flat bone			4	7.7	12	16.9	2	7.7	3	6.1	21	10.5
Ivory					3	4.2					3	1.5
Undetermined			12	23.1	10	14.1	10	38.5	14	28.6	46	23
Total	2	100	52	100	71	100	26	100	49	100	200	100

Figure 6

Histogram with the relative abundance (%) of burning damage degree according to the infilling phases of pit 16.

Weathering (n = 14, 2%), root etching (n = 18, 2%), chemical erosion (n = 4, 0.4%), manganese oxide precipitation (n = 20, 2%), and concretions (n = 347, 40%) were recorded. The latter are present in initial degrees 1 (n = 38, 11%) and 2 (n = 85, 25%) but more commonly reach degrees 3 (n = 117, 34%) and 4 (n = 107, 31%).

3.2.2 Pit 40

All remains size is lower than 10 cm with <5 cm being predominant in the assemblage (n = 211, 90%). Breakage analysis demonstrates some degree of preservation of the shaft completeness (n = 20): 65% (n = 13) have between 25 and 50% of their length and 45% (n = 9) >75% of their original circumference, but with <25% in both length (n = 6, 30%) and circumference (n = 7, 35%). Fracture planes (n = 16) have a higher abundance of transverse (n = 23, 50%) and longitudinal (n = 17, 37%) outlines, right (n = 38, 83%) and mixed (n = 7, 15%) angles, and smooth (n = 26, 57%) edges. Modern breakage is found in 13% (n = 30) of the assemblage, which has 14% (n = 33) complete elements (Figure 5).

Taphonomical indicators associated with anthropogenic or carnivore action are uncommon: one cutmark in a hyoid bone from an undetermined animal and one Oryctolagus cuniculus pelvis with possible crenulated edges (0.4% each). Anthropogenic breakage (n = 5, 2%) comprises impact notches (n = 2), peeling (n = 2), and other indicators (n = 1) generally on taxonomically undetermined bones.

Boiling was not identified but burning damage is found in almost half of the assemblage (n = 103, 44%) (Tables 7 and 8). Double colors (n = 12, 12%), damage on both internal and external surfaces (n = 12, 12%) and warping (n = 1, 1%) are present. Damage in degrees 1 (n = 1, 1%) and 2 (n = 19, 18%) are not abundant in contrast to degree 3 (n = 45, 44%) that occasionally is recorded together with the lower degree 2 (n = 10, 10%) (Figure 7). Degree 4 (n = 16, 16%) is more common in comparison to double colors degrees 4/5 (n = 1, 1%) or degree 5 (n = 5, 5%). The remains surface is mostly completely damaged due to fire (n = 97, 94%) with a few cases having <60% of the surface altered (n = 6, 6%). Proximal “idol” phalanges from equid (n = 4) and red deer (n = 2) were modified through the thinning of mesial and distal portions.

Table 7

Absolute and relative values on the presence of burning damage according to taxa and degree (D) of damage for pit 40

	D2	%	D3	%	D4	%	D5	%	Total	%
Bos taurus			1	2					1	1
Bos sp.					1	5.9			1	1
Ovis/Capra	1	4.8	2	4.1					3	3.1
Sus sp.	6	28.6	14	28.6	3	17.6	3	33.3	26	27.1
Equus sp.	1	4.8	2	4.1	1	5.9			4	4.2
Oryctolagus cuniculus	1	4.8	1	2	1	5.9			3	3.1
Leporidae			1	2					1	1
Microfauna	1	4.8							1	1
Aves					1	5.9			1	1
Undetermined	11	52.4	28	57.1	10	58.8	6	66.7	55	57.3
Total	21	100	49	100	17	100	9	100	96	100
Undetermined
WG unknown	3	27.3	7	25	2	20	1	16.7	13	23.6
WG 1	4	36.4	3	10.7	1	10	1	16.7	9	16.4
WG 1/2	3	27.3	3	10.7	4	40	1	16.7	11	20
WG 2			7	25	1	10	3	50	11	20
WG 2/3			7	25	2	20			9	16.4
WG 3			1	3.6					1	1.8
WG 3/4	1	9.1							1	1.8
Total	11	100	28	100	10	100	6	100	55	100

Table 8

Absolute and relative values on the presence of burning damage according to element and degree (D) of damage for pit 40

	D2	%	D3	%	D4	%	D5	%	Total	%
Antler/horn			1	1.8					1	1.0
Skull (maxilla)	2	9.5	1	1.8					3	2.9
Mandible			1	1.8					1	1.0
Loose tooth			1	1.8			1	11.1	2	1.9
Hyoid			1	1.8					1	1.0
Vertebra	1	4.8	4	7.1	1	5.9	2	22.2	8	7.8
Rib	4	19.0	9	16.1	1	5.9			14	13.6
Scapula					1	5.9			1	1.0
Radius	1	4.8	2	3.6	1	5.9			4	3.9
Ulna							1	11.1	1	1.0
Metacarpal			1	1.8					1	1.0
Pelvis	1	4.8	1	1.8					2	1.9
Femur			2	3.6					2	1.9
Patella					1	5.9			1	1.0
Tibia			2	3.6	1	5.9			3	2.9
Calcaneus							1	11.1	1	1.0
Metatarsal			4	7.1					4	3.9
Metapodial	1	4.8			1	5.9			2	1.9
Carpal/tarsal			4	7.1					4	3.9
Phalange 1	4	19.0	6	10.7	1	5.9			11	10.7
Phalange 2			2	3.6	1	5.9	1	11.1	4	3.9
Phalange 3			1	1.8					1	1.0
Long bone	4	19.0	7	12.5	3	17.6	2	22.2	16	15.5
Flat bone	1	4.8	2	3.6	4	23.5			7	6.8
Undetermined	2	9.5	4	7.1	1	5.9	1	11.1	8	7.8
Total	21	100	56	100	17	100	9	100	103	100

Figure 7

Histogram with the relative abundance (%) of burning damage degree according to the infilling phases of pit 40.

Weathering (n = 5, 2%), root etching (n = 2, 0.9%), erosion (n = 3, 1.3%), and trampling (n = 1, 0.4%) are scarce. Concretions (n = 142, 60.7%) occur in different degrees: 1 (n = 23, 16.2%), 2 (n = 41, 28.9%), 3 (n = 41, 28.9%), and 4 (n = 37, 26.1%).

4.1 Pit 16

This pit corresponds to the secondary disposal of intentionally cremated complete corpses from a minimum number of nine individuals (Silva et al., 2015). The human remains showed an extreme fragmentation (mainly <2 cm) and a high degree of thermal alteration with all bones having been exposed to heat but with heterogeneous combustion. Grey and white colors are prevalent; when different colors exist in the same fragment, the higher temperatures reached are on the outer surfaces of the bones. The existence of curved transverse (or thumbnail) and longitudinal fractures in long bone fragments was interpreted as resulting from the cremation of fresh bones even if they can also occur in burned dry bones (Gonçalves, 2012). It was preliminarily suggested that faunal remains were exposed to fire together with human remains (Silva et al., 2015).

The fauna assemblage is very fractured and fragmented as was the case of human remains. Animal bone fracture planes have a high frequency of longitudinal and transverse outlines, right angles, and jagged edges. This together with the low number of breakage indicators indicates that even if anthropogenic breakage exists it had a low impact or at least that fragments were further broken due to fire and post-depositional processes. Besides concretions, the remaining taphonomical indicators, such as the scarce presence of weathering, suggest that this was not an important process during the formation of this assemblage.

Animal parts from infilling phase 2 were associated with the human cremains and comprised swine, caprine, leporids and, to a lesser extent, bovine and cervids. A total of 35% of this fauna was burned. Degree 1 is absent and degree 4 (12%) is less common than degrees 2 (25%), 3 (38%), and 5 (26%). On the one hand, contrary to the human collection, not all the animal remains were burned or at least not burned to an intensity that could allow for its macroscopic identification. On the other hand, the spread of degrees could relate to heterogeneous combustion, as suggested for the human cremains (Silva et al., 2015).

Some selection of animal body parts is evidenced: 50 remains are from distal appendicular bones (24 from swine, 8 from caprine, and 8 from leporids), such as carpal and tarsal bones, metapodia, and phalanges. Among them, 33% (n = 8) are complete elements and 46% (n = 23) are burned, of which 52% (n = 12) have degree 5 of burning. Appendicular long bone fragments (n = 19) from leporid (n = 8), swine (n = 4), caprine (n = 1), dog (n = 1), and undetermined animals (n = 5) were also recovered. However, only 26% (n = 5) were burned, mostly at degrees 3 (n = 4). This taxonomical and burning damage pattern persists if only the maxilla, mandibles, and vertebrae (n = 25) are considered. Hence, it is possible that a selection of distal appendicular extremities (mostly) from swine occurred, since they are the preferred cremated portions. The higher burning damage observed on distal appendicular bones could eventually relate to the lower amount of soft tissues shielding them from damage. Other appendicular or axial bones are comparatively rarely burned and to a lesser extent correspond to swine. Swine distal appendicular bones are found outside phase 2 but with lower numbers and burning damage. Even if not as relevant quantitatively, burning is also recorded in phases 1 (n = 14, 7%) and 3 (n = 35, 17.5%) showing that this practice is not only associated with human cremains.

4.2 Pit 40

Published data for pit 40 suggests the preferential cremation of fleshed human remains with some skeletonized remains and deposition of a few unburned remains (Godinho et al., 2019). This pit was used for secondary depositions resulting in a commingled deposit but with scarce articulated human body parts. Color changes were recorded in the majority of the sample, which was subjected to high temperatures. Differences in color between outer and inner surfaces are rare and when present are generally in cranial fragments. Fractures are heat-induced in 34% of the cases with curved fractures/thumbnails (6%) and warping (3%) being scarce. It was concluded that the majority of remains result from cremations while fleshed although this behavior probably occurred together with the burning of skeletonized remains (Godinho et al., 2019).

Indicators of anthropogenic breakage are not common or were largely affected by the fragmentation and taphonomical history of the faunal assemblage that is commingled but shows higher completeness of shaft length and circumference in comparison to pit 16. The fracture planes’ higher abundance of transverse and longitudinal outlines and right angles has a post-depositional origin but this does not seem to relate decisively with weathering which is scarce.

Phase 1 is dominated by swine (51%), leporid (12%), and caprine (11%); cervids, bovine, and equids total 12%. Twenty-three complete bones were recovered of which 91.3% (n = 21) are phalanges. Burning damage is documented in 28% (n = 24) of the taxonomically identified remains or 12% of the total sample from this phase, with initial and middle degrees of damage being most common (degrees 1 + 2 + 3, n = 18, 75%). Considering swine, 65% (n = 33) are bones from the distal appendicular skeleton of which 55% (n = 18) are complete and 29% (n = 15) burned, mainly in degrees 2 and 3 (n = 12, 80%). One must also emphasize the presence of Equus sp. and Cervus elaphus proximal phalanges (n = 3 and 1, respectively) that were modified to different degrees through the thinning of the mesial and distal portions resulting in “idol” phalanges.

Phase 2 is a smaller collection and again largely represented by swine (64%), in this case only by distal appendicular bones of which 5 (56%) are phalanges. One modified “idol” proximal phalange from Cervus elaphus was recovered. A total of 12 (50%) bones were burned: degree 5 (n = 1) is scarce in comparison to degrees 2 and 3 (n = 11). The infilling phase 3 comprises one Equus sp. “idol” proximal phalange. This shows that the differences in the number of faunal remain between pit 40 infilling phases, with the majority of remains corresponding to phase 1 for which information on the human cremains exists (Godinho et al., 2019).

Articulated faunal body parts were not observable during the fieldwork but several anatomically compatible bones from distal appendicular extremities exist especially for swine. The possibility that articulated appendicular extremities were being fed to the fire and that they became disarticulated during the burning, transportation, or deposition must be taken into account. Similar to pit 16, there seems to be a selection with a high prevalence of distal appendicular bones. On the contrary, the burning damage is different with a lower abundance in pit 40: 43% (n = 90) of the bones from phase 1 and 50% (n = 12) from phase 2 were burned. These values are lower than the results obtained for human remains from phase 1 but the absence of higher damage on the bones’ inner surfaces in comparison to external surfaces also occurs in the faunal sample. When broken, the latter had the same color on both internal and outer surfaces suggesting that they could have been broken before the burning stage or that they fragmented during the burning and were further altered. The identification of different colors in the same bones for phases 1 and 2 could be due to the existence of soft tissue remnants.

4.3 Data from a Wider Perspective

As far as we know, the contexts discussed from the Perdigões ditched enclosures are unique in the Chalcolithic of Southwestern Iberia. These human cremated remains were deposited in negative features (pits), but they also correspond to a large minimum number of individuals, especially in pit 40 (Godinho et al., 2019; Silva et al., 2015). Further adding value to this is the fact that faunal body parts were recovered in close association with the human remains and other votive materials.

The only mentions of fauna collected in Southwestern Iberia Late Prehistory from contexts containing human cremains have been interpreted as accidental inclusions, intrusive or dubious (e.g., Bettencourt et al., 2021; Cerrillo-Cuenca & González-Cordero, 2014). Some cases are known elsewhere (e.g., Lombra & Haber, 2016) but cremains in negative features accompanied by depositions of faunal remains are at least scarce if not absent. It is not possible to properly discuss this due to the lack of published information and the fact that we are not aware of their existence and absence in different archaeological records. In the occasional cases where faunal remains are mentioned, their characteristics are not discussed. Their presence in negative features is even more difficult to assess since these contexts are even rarer.

In the Neolithic pyre pit of Beisamoun (Israel), the lack of selection, spatial structure, and taphonomical data (small size of fragments, uneven pattern of burning, faunal remains with carnivores, and human damage) led the authors to discard the fauna presence as intentional (Bocquentin et al., 2020). As argued, even if this can be true for a part of the pits 16 and 40 assemblages, does not seem to be the case for all the remains, specifically considering the burned distal appendicular bones. The presence of animal bones in cremation rituals from northern Italy during the Bronze, Iron, and Roman Ages were recently discussed (Masotti, Mongillo, & Gualdi-Russo, 2020). A growth of fauna presence during the Roman periods was associated with a greater diffusion of the funeral banquet but the occurrence of these feasts was suggested for all periods. With some differences concerning the breakage and alteration of remains, one must also consider the possibility that the high breakage could have influenced anatomic and taxonomic identification, as well as the identification of butchering (Abe, Marean, Nilssen, Assefa, & Stone, 2002; Domínguez-Rodrigo, 2003) and consumption marks (Blumenschine, 1988). Thus, a slightly higher relevance of these activities must always be considered when dealing with this type of assemblage. Nonetheless, this would relate less to the distal appendicular bones since they are more complete than the remaining body parts in both pits. The low frequency of butchering or consumption indicators suggests that feasting or banquets if occurring were not of high relevance in our case studies.

Based on the faunal evidence presented, we can distinguish at least two different practices. One from pit 16 where faunal remains were highly altered due to fire reaching calcination degrees. Another from pit 40 where this damage was lower and remains generally only presented themselves charred or carbonized with calcination being less abundant. This is possibly indicating that the behaviors behind the inclusion of faunal remains were different, or that the observed disparities result from the fact that the deposition in pit 16 is one event while the depositions in pit 40 correspond to several events more spread in time. However, similarities seem to have occurred since a preference for swine bones and teeth is demonstrated. This is true mainly for distal appendicular portions, with an important frequency of carpal and tarsal bones, metapodia and phalanges, largely lacking breakage but affected by the fire. Other body parts are normally more fractured and fragmented and this could be due to their use during the combustion.

Similar to other Iberian regions (e.g., Martín, Albizuri, Cólliga, & Gibaja, 2019), the importance of isolated or anatomically connected distal appendicular bones is being increasingly recognized by colleagues that study Portuguese Late Prehistory. This is happening concerning disarticulated dry phalanges or articulated appendicular extremities included in burials (Melo & Silva, 2016; Valera & Costa, 2013a,b) and non-funerary structured depositions (Valera, Basílio, & Almeida, 2020). It also occurs with unmodified phalanges from larger species found in non-funerary ditches associated with votive materials (Almeida, Basílio, & Valera, 2020), and the relevance of the “idols” in equid and red deer phalanges, also present in pit 40 (Valera, 2015).

Previous studies mentioned the deposition of complete swine hooves in the Late Neolithic of Perdigões (Moreno-García & Cabaço, 2009; Valera & Godinho, 2009). An important corpus of data is forming showing that similar to what happens with other species, swine hooves’ relevance is not only due to this species’ economic importance during the Chalcolithic in Westernmost Iberia (Valente & Carvalho, 2014). Their relevance in funerary contexts and structured depositions can have a meaning that surpasses the one they develop in more traditional non-funerary contexts where they correspond to food refuse. Swine are more frequent than other species in other Chalcolithic sites in Southern Portugal such as in the larger assemblages of Porto Torrão (Arnaud, 1993; Pereira, 2016), Mercador (Moreno-García, 2013), or São Pedro (Davis & Mataloto, 2012). Still, swine are generally less common than other species in Perdigões, especially caprine between 2900 and 2200 BC, and this only changes later on in the transition/Early Bronze Age (2200–2000 BC) (Almeida & Valera, 2021). Hence, so far, the most common species in Perdigões in terms of the number of identified remains is not the one being more commonly used in these practices that accompany human cremains.

It is difficult to establish how and when the faunal remains were integrated with the human ones since we do not know the provenance of the materials of the depositions in pits 16 and 40. The study of the human remains indicates that they were burned in different states (dry bones and fleshed), suggesting that the cremation joined skeletal elements from several chronologies and possibly from different structures (Godinho et al., 2019; Silva et al., 2015). This mixture could have also occurred with the faunal remains that may have been present in the original funerary contexts. In other secondary burials at Perdigões which are broadly contemporary with the pits, animal bones are integrated into human ossuaries in Tombs 1, 2, 3, and 4 (Almeida, 2020; Cabaço, 2012). But it is also possible that these animal bones, or at least part of them, were introduced during the cremation process as part of the ritual and the ceremonial practices involving it. The complexity and variability of situations in the preceding contexts and the mixing processes during cremation ceremonies may help to explain the variability observed between pits 16 and 40 and within the two assemblages.