Looks Real, or Really Fake? Warnings, Visual Attention and Detection of False News Articles

Literature Cited

Aisch, G., Huang, J., & Kang, C. (2016). Dissecting the #Pizzagate conspiracy theories. The New York Times, 10.Search in Google Scholar

Allcott, H., & Gentzkow, M. (2017). Social media and fake news in the 2016 election. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31(2), 211-36.10.1257/jep.31.2.211Search in Google Scholar

Appelman, A., & Sundar, S. S. (2016). Measuring message credibility: Construction and validation of an exclusive scale. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 93(1), 59-79.10.1177/1077699015606057Search in Google Scholar

Armstrong, G. M., Gurol, M. N., & Russ, F. A. (1980). Defining and measuring deception in advertising: A review and evaluation. Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 3(1), 17-39.Search in Google Scholar

Badawy, A., Ferrara, E., & Lerman, K. (2018). Analyzing the digital traces of political manipulation: The 2016 Russian interference Twitter campaign. 2018 IEEE/ACM International Conference on Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining.10.1109/ASONAM.2018.8508646Search in Google Scholar

Bartlett, F.C. (1932). Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Berghel, H., (2017) Lies, damn lies, and fake news. Computer, (2), 80.10.1109/MC.2017.56Search in Google Scholar

Bernauer, T. (2013). Climate change politics. Annual Review of Political Science, 16, 421-448.10.1146/annurev-polisci-062011-154926Search in Google Scholar

Bode, L., & Vraga, E. K. (2015). In related news, that was wrong: The correction of misinformation through related stories functionality in social media. Journal of Communication, 65(4), 619-638.10.1111/jcom.12166Search in Google Scholar

Bode, L., & Vraga, E. K. (2018). See something, say something: Correction of global health misinformation on social media. Health Communication, 33(9), 1131-1140.10.1080/10410236.2017.1331312Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Borah, P. (2014). The hyperlinked world: A look at how the interactions of news frames and hyperlinks influence news credibility and willingness to seek information. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 19(3), 576.10.1111/jcc4.12060Search in Google Scholar

Bower, G. H., & Morrow, D. G. (1990). Mental models in narrative comprehension. Science, 247(4938), 44-48.Search in Google Scholar

Boyd, D. (2017). Did media literacy backfire?. Journal of Applied Youth Studies, 1(4), 83.Search in Google Scholar

Brennen, B. (2017). Making sense of lies, deceptive propaganda, and fake news. Journal of Media Ethics, 32(3), 179-181.10.1080/23736992.2017.1331023Search in Google Scholar

Britt, M. A., Rouet, J. F., Blaum, D., & Millis, K. (2019). A reasoned approach to dealing with fake news. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 6(1), 94-101.10.1177/2372732218814855Search in Google Scholar

Broniatowski, D. A., Jamison, A. M., Qi, S., AlKulaib, L., Chen, T., Benton, A., Quinn, S. C., Dredze, M. (2018). Weaponized health communication: Twitter bots and Russian trolls amplify the vaccine debate. American Journal of Public Health, 108(10), 1378-1384.10.2105/AJPH.2018.304567Search in Google Scholar

Burkhardt, J. M. (2017). Combating fake news in the digital age. Library Technology Reports, 53(8), 1.Search in Google Scholar

Cameron, G. T., & Ju-Pak, K. H. (2000). Information pollution?: Labeling and format of advertorials. Newspaper Research Journal, 21(1), 65-76.10.1177/073953290002100106Search in Google Scholar

Cassidy, W. P. (2007). Online news credibility: An examination of the perceptions of newspaper journalists. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12(2), 478-498.10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00334.xSearch in Google Scholar

Chen, Y., Conroy, N. J., & Rubin, V. L. (2015, November). Misleading online content: Recognizing clickbait as false news. In Proceedings of the 2015 ACM on Workshop on Multimodal Deception Detection (pp. 15-19). ACM.10.1145/2823465.2823467Search in Google Scholar

Christoforou, T. (2004). Regulation of Genetically Modified Organisms in the European Union: The Interplay of Science, Law and Politics, The. Common Market L. Rev., 41, 637.10.54648/COLA2004019Search in Google Scholar

Clayton, K., Blair, S., Busam, J. A., Forstner, S., Glance, J., Green, G., ... & Sandhu, M. (2019). Real Solutions for Fake News? Measuring the Effectiveness of General Warnings and Fact-Check Tags in Reducing Belief in False Stories on Social Media. Political Behavior, 1-23.Search in Google Scholar

Colgrove, J. (2006). The ethics and politics of compulsory HPV vaccination. New England Journal of Medicine, 355(23), 2389-2391.10.1056/NEJMp068248Search in Google Scholar

Collins, E. (2016). Trump ad uses footage from Morocco, not Mexican border. Politico.com. Retrieved March 28, 2018, from https://www.politico.com/story/2016/01/donald-trump-ad-footage-border-morocco-217332Search in Google Scholar

Cooke, L. (2005). A visual convergence of print, television, and the internet: charting 40 years of design change in news presentation. New Media & Society, 7(1), 22-46.10.1177/1461444805049141Search in Google Scholar

Cook, J., Ecker, U. K. H., & Lewandowsky, S. (2015). Misinformation and how to correctit. In R. A. Scott & S. M. Kosslyn (Eds.), Emerging trends in the social and behavioral sciences. John Wiley & Sons.Search in Google Scholar

Craft, S., Ashley, S., & Maksl, A. (2017). News media literacy and conspiracy theory endorsement. Communication and the Public, 2(4), 388-401.10.1177/2057047317725539Search in Google Scholar

Del Vicario, M., Bessi, A., Zollo, F., Petroni, F., Scala, A., Caldarelli, G., ... & Quattrociocchi, W. (2016). The spreading of misinformation online. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(3), 554-559.10.1073/pnas.1517441113Search in Google Scholar

Ecker, U. K., Lewandowsky, S., & Apai, J. (2011). Terrorists brought down the plane!—No, actually it was a technical fault: Processing corrections of emotive information. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 64(2), 283-310.10.1080/17470218.2010.497927Search in Google Scholar

Ecker, U. H., Lewandowsky, S., Chang, E. P., & Pillai, R. (2014). The effects of subtle misinformation in news headlines. Journal Of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 20(4), 323-335.10.1037/xap0000028Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Emery C, E., Jacobson, L., (2016). Donald Trump’s first TV ad shows migrants ‘at the southern border,’ but they’re actually in Morocco. Politifact.com Retrieved March 28, 2018, from http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/statements/2016/jan/04/donald-trump/donald-trumps-first-tv-ad-shows-migrants-southern-/Search in Google Scholar

Flaherty, D. K. (2011). The vaccine-autism connection: a public health crisis caused by unethical medical practices and fraudulent science. Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 45(10), 1302-1304.10.1345/aph.1Q318Search in Google Scholar

Garrett, R. K. (2017). The ‘echo chamber’ distraction: Disinformation campaigns are the problem, not audience fragmentation. Journal Of Applied Research In Memory And Cognition, 6(4), 370-376.10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.09.011Search in Google Scholar

Gastañaduy, P. A., Budd, J., Fisher, N., Redd, S. B., Fletcher, J., Miller, J., McFadden, D., J., Rota, J., Rota, P., A., Hickman, C., Fowler, B., Tatham, L. (2016). A measles outbreak in an underimmunized Amish community in Ohio. New England Journal of Medicine, 375(14), 1343-1354.10.1056/NEJMoa1602295Search in Google Scholar

Gaziano, C., & McGrath, K. (1986). Measuring the concept of credibility. Journalism Quarterly, 63(3), 451-462.10.1177/107769908606300301Search in Google Scholar

Giddens, A. (2009). The politics of climate change. Cambridge, UK.Search in Google Scholar

Gordon, A., Brooks, J. C., Quadflieg, S., Ecker, U. K., & Lewandowsky, S. (2017). Exploring the neural substrates of misinformation processing. Neuropsychologia, 106, 216-224.10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.10.003Search in Google Scholar

Gostin, L. O. (2015). Law, ethics, and public health in the vaccination debates: politics of the measles outbreak. Jama, 313(11), 1099-1100.10.1001/jama.2015.1518Search in Google Scholar

Graziano, C. & McGrath, K. (1986). Measuring the concept of credibility. Journalism Quarterly, 63, 451–462.10.1177/107769908606300301Search in Google Scholar

Guess, A., Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2018). Selective Exposure to Misinformation: Evidence from the consumption of fake news during the 2016 US presidential campaign.Search in Google Scholar

Hall, V., Banerjee, E., Kenyon, C., Strain, A., Griffith, J., Como-Sabetti, K., ... & Johnson, D. (2017). Measles Outbreak—Minnesota April–May 2017. MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report, 66(27), 713.10.15585/mmwr.mm6627a1Search in Google Scholar

Hameleers, M., & van der Meer, T. G. (2019). Misinformation and Polarization in a High-Choice Media Environment: How Effective Are Political Fact-Checkers?. Communication Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365021881967110.1177/0093650218819671Search in Google Scholar

Harvey, C. (2016, January 4). Here’s how scientific misinformation, such as climate doubt, spreads through social media. The Washington Post. Retrieved from http://washingtonpost.comSearch in Google Scholar

Jacobson, T. E., & Mackey, T. P. (2013). Proposing a metaliteracy model to redefine information literacy. Communications in information literacy, 7(2), 84-91.10.15760/comminfolit.2013.7.2.138Search in Google Scholar

Jang, S. M., & Kim, J. K. (2018). Third person effects of fake news: Fake news regulation and media literacy interventions. Computers in Human Behavior, 80, 295-302.10.1016/j.chb.2017.11.034Search in Google Scholar

Keib, K. M., & Wojdynski, B.W. (2017, August). Fake News, Real Cues: Cues and Heuristics in Users’ Online News Credibility Judgments. Paper presented at the 100^th annual Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC) Annual Convention, Chicago, IL.Search in Google Scholar

Kim, S. J., & Hancock, J. T. (2017). How advertorials deactivate advertising schema: MTurk-based experiments to examine persuasion tactics and outcomes in health advertisements. Communication Research, 44(7), 1019-1045.10.1177/0093650216644017Search in Google Scholar

Lazer, D. M., Baum, M. A., Benkler, Y., Berinsky, A. J., Greenhill, K. M., Menczer, F., ... & Schudson, M. (2018). The science of fake news. Science, 359(6380), 1094-1096.Search in Google Scholar

Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K., & Cook, J. (2017). Beyond misinformation: Understanding and coping with the “post-truth” era. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 6(4), 353-369.10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.07.008Search in Google Scholar

Lubbers, E. (2016, November 08). There is no such thing as the Denver Guardian, despite that Facebook post you saw. Retrieved March 29, 2018, from https://www.denverpost.com/2016/11/05/there-is-no-such-thing-as-the-denver-guardian/Search in Google Scholar

MacFarquhar, N. (2016). A Powerful Russian Weapon: The Spread of False Stories. Retrieved March 28, 2018, from https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/29/world/europe/russia-sweden-disinformation.html?action=click&contentCollection=Europe&module=RelatedCoverage®ion=Marginalia&pgtype=articleSearch in Google Scholar

Mackey, T. P., & Jacobson, T. E. (2011). Reframing information literacy as a metaliteracy. College & research libraries, 72(1), 62-78.10.5860/crl-76r1Search in Google Scholar

McCright, A. M., & Dunlap, R. E. (2017). Combatting misinformation requires recognizing its types and the factors that facilitate its spread and resonance. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, (4), 389.10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.09.005Search in Google Scholar

Meirick, P. C. (2013). Motivated misperception? Party, education, partisan news, and belief in ‘death panels’. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, (1), 39.10.1177/1077699012468696Search in Google Scholar

Mihailidis, P., & Viotty, S. (2017). Spreadable spectacle in digital culture: civic expression, fake news, and the role of media literacies in “post-fact” society. American Behavioral Scientist, 61(4), 441-454.10.1177/0002764217701217Search in Google Scholar

Mourão, R. R., & Robertson, C. T. (2019). Fake News as Discursive Integration: An Analysis of Sites That Publish False, Misleading, Hyperpartisan and Sensational Information. Journalism Studies, 1-19.10.1080/1461670X.2019.1566871Search in Google Scholar

Nelson, J. L., & Taneja, H. (2018). The small, disloyal fake news audience: The role of audience availability in fake news consumption. New Media & Society, 1461444818758715.10.1177/1461444818758715Search in Google Scholar

Paarlberg, R. L. (2001). The politics of precaution: Genetically modified crops in developing countries. Intl Food Policy Res Inst.Search in Google Scholar

Pasek, J., Stark, T. H., Krosnick, J. A., & Tompson, T. (2015). What motivates a conspiracy theory? Birther beliefs, partisanship, liberal-conservative ideology, and anti-Black attitudes. Electoral Studies, 40482-489.10.1016/j.electstud.2014.09.009Search in Google Scholar

Porter, E., Wood, T. J., & Kirby, D. (2018). Sex trafficking, Russian infiltration, Birth certificates, and pedophilia: A survey experiment correcting fake news. Journal of Experimental Political Science, 1-6, advance online publication.10.1017/XPS.2017.32Search in Google Scholar

Riggins, J. A. (2017). Law student unleashes bombshell allegation you wont believe! “Fake News” as commercial speech. Wake Forest Law Review, 52(5), 1311-1334.Search in Google Scholar

Rochlin, N. (2017). Fake news: belief in post-truth. Library Hi Tech, 35(3), 386–392.10.1108/LHT-03-2017-0062Search in Google Scholar

Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2018). The fake news game: actively inoculating against the risk of misinformation. Journal of Risk Research, 1-11. Advance online publication.Search in Google Scholar

Rumelhart, D. E. (1984). Schemata and the cognitive system. In J. R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 1, pp. 161–188). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Search in Google Scholar

Rumelhart, D. E. & Ortony, A. (1977). The representation of knowledge inmemory. In:, In. R. C. Anderson, R. J. Spiro & W. E. Montague (Eds.), Schooling and the acquisition of knowledge. Hillsdale, NJ: ErlbaumSearch in Google Scholar

Sangalang, A., Ophir, Y., & Cappella, J. N. (2019). The potential for narrative correctives to combat misinformation. Journal of Communication, 69(3), 298–319.10.1093/joc/jqz014Search in Google Scholar

Scott, M., & Eddy, M. (2017). Europe Combats a New Foe of Political Stability: Fake News. Retrieved March 28, 2018, from https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/20/world/europe/europe-combats-a-new-foe-of-political-stability-fake-news.htmlSearch in Google Scholar

Shane, S. (2017). From Headline to Photograph, a Fake News Masterpiece. New York Times. Retrieved from < https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/18/us/fake-news-hillary-clinton-cameron-harris.html >.Search in Google Scholar

Shearer, E., & Gottfried, J. (2017). News Use Across Social Media Platforms 2017. Retrieved March 28, 2018, from http://www.journalism.org/2017/09/07/news-use-across-social-media-platforms-2017/Search in Google Scholar

Shin, J., Jian, L., Driscoll, K., & Bar, F. (2017). Political rumoring on Twitter during the 2012 US presidential election: Rumor diffusion and correction. New Media & Society, 19(8), 1214-1235.10.1177/1461444816634054Search in Google Scholar

Silverman, C., & Alexander, L. (2016). How Teens In The Balkans Are Duping Trump Supporters With Fake News. Retrieved March 26, 2018, from http://www.buzzfeed.com/craigsilverman/how-macedonia-became-a-global-hub-for-pro-trump-misinfo?utm_term=.wu9narYa1q#.nibWE3xEgpSearch in Google Scholar

Shao, C., Ciampaglia, G. L., Varol, O., Yang, K. C., Flammini, A., & Menczer, F. (2018). The spread of low-credibility content by social bots. Nature Communications, 9(1), 4787.10.1038/s41467-018-06930-7Search in Google Scholar

Soares, I. (2017) The fake news machine: Inside a town gearing up for 2020. Retrieved March 17, 2018, from http://money.cnn.com/interactive/media/the-macedonia-story/Search in Google Scholar

Subramanian, S. (2017). The Macedonian Teens Who Mastered Fake News. Retrieved March 17, 2018, from https://www.wired.com/2017/02/veles-macedonia-fake-news/Search in Google Scholar

Sun, L. H. (2017, May 5). Anti-vaccine activists spark a state’s worst measles outbreak in decades. The Washington Post. Retrieved from http://washingtonpost.com/Search in Google Scholar

Sundar, S. S., Knobloch-Westerwick, S., & Hastall, M. R. (2007). News cues: Information scent and cognitive heuristics. Journal of the American Society for Information Science & Technology, 58(3), 366–378.10.1002/asi.20511Search in Google Scholar

Swire, B., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2018). Misinformation and its correction: Cognitive mechanisms and recommendations for mass communication. In B. G. Southwell, E. A. Thorson, & L. Sheble (Eds.), Misinformation and mass audiences. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.Search in Google Scholar

Sydell, L. (2016). We Tracked Down A Fake-News Creator In The Suburbs. Here’s What We Learned. Retrieved March 29, 2018, from https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2016/11/23/503146770/npr-finds-the-head-of-a-covert-fake-news-operation-in-the-suburbsSearch in Google Scholar

Tandoc, E. C., Lim, Z. W., & Ling, R. (2018). Defining “Fake News” A typology of scholarly definitions. Digital Journalism, 6(2), 137-153.10.1080/21670811.2017.1360143Search in Google Scholar

Timberg, C. (2016). Russian propaganda effort helped spread ‘fake news’ during election, experts say. Washington Post, 24.Search in Google Scholar

Tully, M., & Vraga, E. K. (2017). Effectiveness of a news media literacy advertisement in partisan versus nonpartisan online media contexts. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 61(1), 144-162.10.1080/08838151.2016.1273923Search in Google Scholar

Turner, K. H., Jolls, T., Hagerman, M. S., O’Byrne, W., Hicks, T., Eisenstock, B., & Pytash, K. E. (2017). Developing digital and media literacies in children and adolescents. Pediatrics, 140 (Supplement 2), S122-S126.10.1542/peds.2016-1758PSearch in Google Scholar

U.S. Census Bureau. (2018, July 1). Quick Facts. Retrieved May 10, 2019. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045218Search in Google Scholar

Vargo, C. J., Guo, L., & Amazeen, M. A. (2018). The agenda-setting power of fake news: A big data analysis of the online media landscape from 2014 to 2016. New Media & Society 20(5), 2028-2049.10.1177/1461444817712086Search in Google Scholar

van der Meer, T. G., & Jin, Y. (2019). Seeking Formula for Misinformation Treatment in Public Health Crises: The Effects of Corrective Information Type and Source. Health Communication, 1-16.Search in Google Scholar

van Dijk, T.A. (1983). Discourse Analysis: Its Development and Application to the Structure of News, Journal of Communication, 33(2), 20-43.10.1111/j.1460-2466.1983.tb02386.xSearch in Google Scholar

Vosoughi, S., Roy, D., & Aral, S. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science, 6380, 1146.10.1126/science.aap9559Search in Google Scholar

Wakefield, A. J., Murch, S. H., Anthony, A., Linnell, J., Casson, D. M., Malik, M., Berelowitz, M., Dhillon, A., P., Thomson, M., A., Harvey, P., Valentine, A., Davies, S., E., Walker-Smith, J., A. (1998). RETRACTED: Ileal-lymphoid-nodular hyperplasia, non-specific colitis, and pervasive developmental disorder in children. (Retracted article. See vol 375, pg 445, 2010). LANCET, 351(9103), 637–641.10.1016/S0140-6736(97)11096-0Search in Google Scholar

Waldrop, M. M. (2017). The genuine problem of fake news: Intentionally deceptive news has co-opted social media to go viral and influence millions. Science and technology can suggest why and how. But can they offer solutions?. Proceedings Of The National Academy Of Sciences Of The United States Of America, 114(48), 12631-12634.Search in Google Scholar

Wardle, C. (2016). 6 types of misinformation circulated this election season. Retrieved March 28, 2018, from https://www.cjr.org/tow_center/6_types_election_fake_news.phpSearch in Google Scholar

Wardle, C. (2017). Fake news. It’s complicated. Retrieved March 28, 2018, from https://firstdraftnews.org/fake-news-complicated/Search in Google Scholar

Wojdynski, B. W., & Golan, G. J. (2016). Native advertising and the future of mass communication. American Behavioral Scientist, 60(12), 1403-1407.10.1177/0002764216660134Search in Google Scholar

Zipprich, J., Winter, K., Hacker, J., Xia, D., Watt, J., & Harriman, K. (2015). Measles outbreak--California, December 2014-February 2015. MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report, 64(6), 153-154.Search in Google Scholar