Abstract
Some natural sites, as a result of contaminants emitted into the air and subsequently deposited in soil or accidental industrial release, have high levels of organic and non-organic chemicals in soil. In occupational and recreation settings, these could be potential sources of percutaneous exposure to humans. When investigating percutaneous absorption from soil – in vitro or vivo – soil load, particle size, layering, soil “age” time, along with the methods of performing the experiment and analyzing the results must be taken into consideration. Skin absorption from soil is generally reduced compared with uptake from water/acetone. However, the absorption of some compounds, e.g., pentachlorophenol, chlorodane and PCB 1254, are similar. Lipophilic compounds like dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, benzo[A]pyrene, and metals have the tendency to form reservoirs in skin. Thus, one should take caution in interpreting results directly from in vitro studies for risk assessment; in vivo validations are often required for the most relevant risk assessment.
References
1. USEPA, Dermal exposure assessment: principles and applications. Interim Report, EPA/600/8-91/011B, Exposure Assessment Group, Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, Washington D.C., 1992.Search in Google Scholar
2. USEPA, Risk assessment guidance for superfund (RAGS), Volume I: Human Health Evaluation Manual (Part E, Supplemental Guidance for Dermal Risk Assessment) Final. EPA-540-R-99-005. Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation, Washington D.C., 2004.Search in Google Scholar
3. Johnson JE, Kissel JC. Prevalence of dermal pathway dominance in risk assessment of contaminated soils: a survey of superfund risk assessments, 1989–1992. Hum Ecol Risk Assess An Int J 1996;2:356–65.10.1080/10807039609383613Search in Google Scholar
4. Poet TS, McDougal JN. Skin absorption and human risk assessment. Chem Biol Interact 2002;140:19–34.10.1016/S0009-2797(02)00013-3Search in Google Scholar
5. Choate LM, Ranville JF, Bunge AL, Macalady DL. Dermally adhered soil: 1. Amount and particle-size distribution. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2006;2:375–84.10.1002/ieam.5630020409Search in Google Scholar
6. Spalt EW, Kissel JC, Shirai JH, Bunge AL. Dermal absorption of environmental contaminants from soil and sediment: a critical review. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2009;19:119–48.10.1038/jes.2008.57Search in Google Scholar
7. Wester RC, Maibach HI. In vivo percutaneous absorption and decontamination of pesticides in humans. J Toxicol Environ Health 1985;16:25–37.10.1080/15287398509530716Search in Google Scholar
8. Poet TS, Corley RA, Thrall KD, Edwards JA, Tanojo H, Weitz KK, et al. Assessment of the percutaneous absorption of trichloroethylene in rats and humans using MS/MS real-time breath analysis and physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling. Toxicol Sci 2000;56:61–72.10.1093/toxsci/56.1.61Search in Google Scholar
9. Bunge A, Touraille G, Marty J, Guy R. Modeling dermal absorption from soils and powders using stratum corneum tape-stripping in vivo. In: Riviere J. editor. Models in toxicology and pharmacology. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor and Francis Group, 2005:191–212.Search in Google Scholar
10. Bull RJ, Sanchez IM, Nelson MA, Larson JL, Lansing AJ. Liver tumor induction in B6C3F1 mice by dichloroacetate and trichloroacetate. Toxicology 1990;63:341–59.10.1016/0300-483X(90)90195-MSearch in Google Scholar
11. Dekant W, Vamvakas S, Koob M, Köchling A, Kanhai W, Müller D, et al. A mechanism of haloalkene-induced renal carcinogenesis. Environ Health Perspect 1990;88:107–10.10.1289/ehp.9088107Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
12. Poet TS, Thrall KD, Corley RA, Hui X, Edwards JA, Weitz, Maibach HI, et al. Utility of real time breath analysis and physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling to determine the percutaneous absorption of methyl chloroform in rats and humans. Toxicol Sci 2000;54:42–51.10.1093/toxsci/54.1.42Search in Google Scholar PubMed
13. Poet TS, Weitz KK, Gies RA, Edwards JA, Thrall KD, Corley RA, et al. PBPK modeling of the percutaneous absorption of perchloroethylene from a soil matrix in rats and humans. Toxicol Sci 2002;67:17–31.10.1093/toxsci/67.1.17Search in Google Scholar PubMed
14. Abdel-Rahman MS, Skowronski GA, Turkall RM, Dermal bioavailability of toluene aged in soil. Soil Sediment Contam. 2004;13:17–24.10.1080/10588330490269750Search in Google Scholar
15. Skowronski GA, Turkall RM, Abdel-Rahman MS. Soil adsorption alters bioavailability of benzene in dermally exposed male rats. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1988;49:506–11.10.1080/15298668891380132Search in Google Scholar PubMed
16. Pahlman R, Pelkonen O. Mutagenicity studies of different polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: the significance of enzymatic factors and molecular structure. Carcinogenesis 1987;8:773–78.10.1093/carcin/8.6.773Search in Google Scholar PubMed
17. White KL. An overview of immunotoxicology and carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Environ Carcinog Rev 1986;4:163–202.10.1080/10590508609373342Search in Google Scholar
18. Yang JJ, Roy TA, Krueger AJ, Neil W, Mackerer CR. In vitro and in vivo percutaneous absorption of benzoa.pyrene from petroleum crude-fortified soil in the rat. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 1989;43:207–14.10.1007/BF01701749Search in Google Scholar PubMed
19. Abdel-Rahman M, Skowronski G, Turkall R. Assessment of the dermal bioavailability of soil-aged benzo(a)pyrene. Hum Ecol Risk Assess An Int J 2002;8:429–41.10.1080/20028091056999Search in Google Scholar
20. Wester RC, Maibach HI, Bucks D, Sedik L, Melendres J, Liao CL, et al. Percutaneous absorption of [14 C]DDT and [14 C]Benzo[a]pyrene from soil. Toxicol Sci 1990;15:510–16.10.1093/toxsci/15.3.510Search in Google Scholar
21. Reigner B, Gungon R, Hoag M, Tozer T. Pentachlorophenol toxicokinetics after intravenous and oral administration to rat. Xenobiotica 1991;21:1547–58.10.3109/00498259109044404Search in Google Scholar PubMed
22. Infante-Rivard C, Weichenthal S. Pesticides and childhood cancer: an update of Zahm and Ward’s 1998 review. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev 2007;10:81–99.10.1080/10937400601034589Search in Google Scholar PubMed
23. Wester RC, Melendres J, Logan F, Hui X, Maibach HI, Wade KM, et al. Percutaneous absorption of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid from soil with respect to soil load and skin contact time: in vivo absorption in rhesus monkey and in vitro absorption in human skin. J Toxicol Environ Health 1996;47:335–44.10.1080/009841096161681Search in Google Scholar PubMed
24. Wester RC. Percutaneous absorption of pentachlorophenol from soil. Fundam Appl Toxicol 1993;20:68–71.10.1006/faat.1993.1008Search in Google Scholar
25. Wester RC, Maibach HI, Sedik L, Melendres J, Liao CL, DiZio S. Percutaneous absorption of [14C]chlordane from soil. J Toxicol Environ Health 1992;35:269–77.10.1080/15287399209531617Search in Google Scholar
26. Kogevinas M. Human health effects of dioxins: cancer, reproductive and endocrine system effects. Hum Reprod Update 2001;7:331–9.10.1093/humupd/7.3.331Search in Google Scholar
27. Wester RC, Maibach HI, Sedik L, Melendres J, Wade M. Percutaneous absorption of PCBs from soil: in vivo rhesus monkey, in vitro human skin, and binding to powdered human stratum corneum. J Toxicol Environ Health 1993;39:375–82.10.1080/15287399309531758Search in Google Scholar
28. Roy TA, Hammerstrom K, Schaum J. Percutaneous absorption of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) from soil. J Toxicol Environ Health A 2008;71:1509–15.10.1080/15287390802349875Search in Google Scholar
29. Reifenrath W, Percutaneous absorption of explosives and related compounds: an empirical model of bioavailability of organic nitro compounds from soil. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2002;182:160–68.10.1006/taap.2002.9436Search in Google Scholar
30. Abernathy C, Liu Y. Arsenic: health effects, mechanisms of actions, and research issues. Environ Health Perspect 1999;107:593–97.10.1289/ehp.99107593Search in Google Scholar
31. Abdel-Rahman M, Skowronski G, Turkall R. In vitro penetration of pig skin by heavy metals in soil. Soil Sediment Contam 2005;14:123–34.10.1080/15320380590911742Search in Google Scholar
32. Nordberg GF. Cadmium and health in the 21st century-historical remarks and trends for the future. Biometals 2004;17:485–9.10.1023/B:BIOM.0000045726.75367.85Search in Google Scholar
33. Wester RC, Maibach HI, Sedik L, Melendres J, DiZio S, Wade M. In vitro percutaneous absorption of cadmium from water and soil into human skin. Fundam Appl Toxicol 1992;19:1–5.10.1016/0272-0590(92)90021-9Search in Google Scholar
34. Lowney YW, Wester RC, Schoof RA, Cushing CA, Edwards M, Ruby MV. Dermal absorption of arsenic from soils as measured in the rhesus monkey. Toxicol Sci 2007;100:381–92.10.1093/toxsci/kfm175Search in Google Scholar PubMed
35. Gerby J, Wester RC, Maibach HI. Percutaneous absorption of hazardous substances from soil and water. In: Wilhelm K, Zhai H, Maibach HI, editors. Dermatotoxicology, 8th ed. London: Informa Healthcare, 2012:343–47.Search in Google Scholar
©2014 by De Gruyter
