Skip to content
Licensed Unlicensed Requires Authentication Published by De Gruyter January 9, 2019

Sources of lead exposure in various countries

  • Emmanuel Obeng-Gyasi EMAIL logo

Abstract

This review evaluates the sources of lead exposure worldwide. Studies from searches relating to sources of lead exposure in various countries within different regional zones were reviewed. Results indicated that in Nigeria, exposure sources include electronic waste, paint and batteries. In Mexico exposure sources include glazed ceramics, lead contaminated utensils and lead contaminated water, for India lead sources include cosmetics and traditional medicines. Sources of lead exposure in China include e-waste, traditional medicines and industrial emissions. In France, exposure sources included lead paint from older homes, imported ceramics and cosmetics and industrial emissions. Australia’s exposure sources include paint, dust, imported toys and traditional medicines. Finally, in the United States exposure sources included paint, the industrial legacy of lead exposure and batteries. In high-income countries (HICs) the legacy of lead exposure keeps populations continuously exposed. In lower- and middle-income countries (LMICs), in addition to the legacy of lead exposure, lack of regulations or the inability to enforce regulations keeps populations exposed. In all, evidence suggests that lead exposure remains an issue of public health significance in both HIC and LMIC.

  1. Research funding: The author states no funding involved.

  2. Conflict of interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

  3. Informed consent: Not applicable.

  4. Ethical approval: This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by the author.

References

1. Nriagu JO. Lead and lead poisoning in antiquity. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1983.Search in Google Scholar

2. Mielke HW, Laidlaw MA, Gonzales C. Lead (Pb) legacy from vehicle traffic in eight California urbanized areas: continuing influence of lead dust on children’s health. Sci Total Environ 2010;408:3965–75.10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.05.017Search in Google Scholar PubMed

3. Attina TM, Trasande L. Economic costs of childhood lead exposure in low-and middle-income countries. Environ Health Perspect 2013;121:1097–102.10.1289/ehp.1206424Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

4. Obeng-Gyasi E, Armijos RX, Weigel MM, Filippelli GM, Sayegh MA. Cardiovascular-related outcomes in US adults exposed to lead. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2018;15:759.10.3390/ijerph15040759Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

5. Obeng-Gyasi E, Armijos RX, Margaret Weigel M, Filippelli G, Aaron Sayegh M. Hepatobiliary-related outcomes in US adults exposed to lead. Environments 2018;5:46.10.3390/environments5040046Search in Google Scholar

6. Lin J-L, Lin-Tan D-T, Hsu K-H, Yu C-C. Environmental lead exposure and progression of chronic renal diseases in patients without diabetes. N Engl J Med 2003;348:277–86.10.1056/NEJMoa021672Search in Google Scholar PubMed

7. Vigeh M, Smith DR, Hsu P-C. How does lead induce male infertility? Iran J Reprod Med 2011;9:1–8.Search in Google Scholar

8. Mishra K. Lead exposure and its impact on immune system: a review. Toxicol In Vitro 2009;23:969–72.10.1016/j.tiv.2009.06.014Search in Google Scholar PubMed

9. Needleman H. Lead poisoning. Annu Rev Med 2004;55:209–22.10.1146/annurev.med.55.091902.103653Search in Google Scholar PubMed

10. Obeng-Gyasi E. Lead exposure and oxidative stress – a life course approach in U.S. adults. Toxics 2018;6:42.10.3390/toxics6030042Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

11. Liu J, Li L, Wang Y, Yan C, Liu X. Impact of low blood lead concentrations on IQ and school performance in Chinese children. PLoS One 2013;8:e65230.10.1371/journal.pone.0065230Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

12. Wang C-L, Chuang HY, Ho CK, Yang CY, Tsai JL, Wu TS, et al. Relationship between blood lead concentrations and learning achievement among primary school children in Taiwan. Environ Res 2002;89:12–8.10.1006/enrs.2002.4342Search in Google Scholar PubMed

13. Roy A, Bellinger D, Hu H, Schwartz J, Ettinger AS, Wright RO, et al. Lead exposure and behavior among young children in Chennai, India. Environ Health Perspect 2009;117:1607.10.1289/ehp.0900625Search in Google Scholar

14. Ogunseitan OA, Smith TR. The cost of environmental lead (Pb) poisoning in Nigeria. Afr J Environ Sci Technol 2007;1:27–36.Search in Google Scholar

15. Calderon J, Navarro ME, Jimenez-Capdeville ME, Santos-Diaz MA, Golden A, Rodriguez-Leyva I, et al. Exposure to arsenic and lead and neuropsychological development in Mexican children. Environ Res 2001;85:69–76.10.1006/enrs.2000.4106Search in Google Scholar

16. Hernández-Ochoa I, García-Vargas G, López-Carrillo L, Rubio-Andrade M, Morán-Martínez J, Cebrián ME, et al. Low lead environmental exposure alters semen quality and sperm chromatin condensation in northern Mexico. Reprod Toxicol 2005;20:221–8.10.1016/j.reprotox.2005.01.007Search in Google Scholar

17. Wang S, Zhang J. Blood lead levels in children, China. Environ Res 2006;101:412–8.10.1016/j.envres.2005.11.007Search in Google Scholar

18. Ren HM, Wang JD, Zhang XL. Assessment of soil lead exposure in children in Shenyang, China. Environ Pollut 2006;144:327–35.10.1016/j.envpol.2005.11.011Search in Google Scholar

19. Huo X, Peng L, Xu X, Zheng L, Qiu B, Qi Z, et al. Elevated blood lead levels of children in Guiyu, an electronic waste recycling town in China. Environ Health Perspect 2007;115:1113–7.10.1289/ehp.9697Search in Google Scholar

20. Clark CS, Rampal KG, Thuppil V, Chen CK, Clark R, Roda S. The lead content of currently available new residential paint in several Asian countries. Environ Res 2006;102:9–12.10.1016/j.envres.2005.11.002Search in Google Scholar

21. Lin G, Peng RF, Chen Q, Wu ZG, Du L. Lead in housing paints: An exposure source still not taken seriously for children lead poisoning in China. Environ Res 2009;109:1–5.10.1016/j.envres.2008.09.003Search in Google Scholar

22. Ernst E. Toxic heavy metals and undeclared drugs in Asian herbal medicines. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2002;23:136–9.10.1016/S0165-6147(00)01972-6Search in Google Scholar

23. Ernst E, Coon JT. Heavy metals in traditional Chinese medicines: a systematic review. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2001;70:497–504.10.1067/mcp.2001.120249Search in Google Scholar PubMed

24. Thatte U, Rege NN, Phatak SD, Dahanukar SA. The flip side of Ayurveda. J Postgrad Med 1993;39:179–82.Search in Google Scholar

25. Lin S-H, Wang XR, Yu IT, Tang WN, Li J, Liu BO. Lead powder use for skin care and elevated blood lead level among children in a Chinese rural area. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2012;22:198–203.10.1038/jes.2011.46Search in Google Scholar

26. Liou S-H, Wu TN, Chiang HC, Yang GY, Yang T, Wu YQ, et al. Blood lead levels in Taiwanese adults: distribution and influencing factors. Sci Total Environ 1996;180:211–9.10.1016/0048-9697(96)80245-2Search in Google Scholar

27. Nichani V, Li WI, Smith MA, Noonan G, Kulkarni M, Kodavor M, et al. Blood lead levels in children after phase-out of leaded gasoline in Bombay, India. Sci Total Environ 2006;363:95–106.10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.06.033Search in Google Scholar PubMed

28. Kuruvilla A, Pillay VV, Venkatesh T, Adhikari P, Chakrapani M, Clark CS, et al. Portable lead analyzer to locate source of lead. Indian J Pediatr 2004;71:495–9.10.1007/BF02724287Search in Google Scholar PubMed

29. Van Alphen M. Lead in paints and water in India. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Lead Poisoning Prevention and Treatment: Implementing a National Program in Developing Countries, 1999.Search in Google Scholar

30. Kumar A, Scott CC. Lead loadings in household dust in Delhi, India. Indoor Air 2009;19:414–20.10.1111/j.1600-0668.2009.00605.xSearch in Google Scholar PubMed

31. Kumar A, Gottesfeld P. Lead content in household paints in India. Sci Total Environ 2008;407:333–7.10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.08.038Search in Google Scholar PubMed

32. Sprinkle RV, Leaded eye cosmetics: a cultural cause of elevated lead levels in children. J Fam Pract 1995;40:358–63.Search in Google Scholar

33. Patil AJ, Bhagwat VR, Patil JA, Dongre NN, Ambekar JG, Das KK. Occupational lead exposure in battery manufacturing workers, silver jewelry workers, and spray painters in western Maharashtra (India): effect on liver and kidney function. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol 2007;18:87–100.10.1515/JBCPP.2007.18.2.87Search in Google Scholar PubMed

34. Karri SK, Saper RB, Kales SN. Lead encephalopathy due to traditional medicines. Curr Drug Saf 2008;3:54–9.10.2174/157488608783333907Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

35. Gogtay N, Bhatt HA, Dalvi SS, Kshirsagar NA. The use and safety of non-allopathic Indian medicines. Drug Saf 2002;25:1005–19.10.2165/00002018-200225140-00003Search in Google Scholar PubMed

36. Nagarajan S, Krishnaswamy S, Pemiah B, Rajan KS, Krishnan U, Sethuraman S. Scientific insights in the preparation and characterisation of a lead-based naga bhasma. Indian J Pharm Sci 2014;76:38–45.Search in Google Scholar

37. Reddy MS, Basha S, Joshi HV, Jha B. Evaluation of the emission characteristics of trace metals from coal and fuel oil fired power plants and their fate during combustion. J Hazard Mater 2005;123:242–9.10.1016/j.jhazmat.2005.04.008Search in Google Scholar PubMed

38. Nriagu JO, Blankson ML, Ocran K. Childhood lead poisoning in Africa: a growing public health problem. Sci Total Environ 1996;181:93–100.10.1016/0048-9697(95)04954-1Search in Google Scholar

39. Nriagu J, Oleru NT, Cudjoe C, Chine A. Lead poisoning of children in Africa, III. Kaduna, Nigeria. Sci Total Environ 1997;197:13–9.10.1016/S0048-9697(96)05408-3Search in Google Scholar

40. Omokhodion FO, Blood lead and tap water lead levels in Ibadan, Nigeria. Sci Total Environ 1994;151:187–90.10.1016/0048-9697(94)90467-7Search in Google Scholar

41. Ikem A, Nwankwoala A, Odueyungbo S, Nyavor K, Egiebor, N. Levels of 26 elements in infant formula from USA, UK, and Nigeria by microwave digestion and ICP–OES. Food Chem 2002;77:439–47.10.1016/S0308-8146(01)00378-8Search in Google Scholar

42. Orisakwe OE, Nduka JK. Lead and cadmium levels of commonly administered pediatric syrups in Nigeria: a public health concern? Sci Total Environ 2009;407:5993–6.10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.08.033Search in Google Scholar PubMed

43. Maduabuchi J-M, Nzegwu CN, Adigba EO, Aloke RU, Ezomike CN, Okocha CE, et al. Lead and cadmium exposures from canned and non-canned beverages in Nigeria: a public health concern. Sci Total Environ 2006;366:621–6.10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.12.015Search in Google Scholar PubMed

44. Adebamowo EO, Clark CS, Roda S, Agbede OA, Sridhar MK, Adebamowo CA. Lead content of dried films of domestic paints currently sold in Nigeria. Sci Total Environ 2007;388:116–20.10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.07.061Search in Google Scholar PubMed

45. Nigeria L. Heavy metals content in classroom dust of some public primary schools in Metropolitan Lagos, Nigeria. Res J Environ Earth Sci 2012;4:460–5.Search in Google Scholar

46. Ignatius CM, Emeka EN, Ebele JI, Otuu IO, Silas AU, Edwin AO. Lead in potable water sources in Abakaliki metropolis, South-East, Nigeria. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 2012;88:793–6.10.1007/s00128-012-0532-zSearch in Google Scholar PubMed

47. Wright N, Thacher TD, Pfitzner MA, Fischer PR, Pettifor JM. Causes of lead toxicity in a Nigerian city. Arch Dis Child 2005;90:262–6.10.1136/adc.2003.043562Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

48. Obi E, Akunyili DN, Ekpo B, Orisakwe OE. Heavy metal hazards of Nigerian herbal remedies. Sci Total Environ 2006;369:35–41.10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.04.024Search in Google Scholar PubMed

49. Ketiku A, Adeyinka O. Leaching of lead from imported and Nigeria earthenware pottery and ceramic household utensils into food and drink. Biol Appl Chem 1999;44:18–20.Search in Google Scholar

50. Ademuyiwa O, Ugbaja RN, Rotimi SO, Abam E, Okediran BS, Dosumu OA, et al. Erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase activity as a surrogate indicator of lead-induced neurotoxicity in occupational lead exposure in Abeokuta, Nigeria. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 2007;24:183–8.10.1016/j.etap.2007.05.002Search in Google Scholar PubMed

51. Tirima S, Bartrem C, von Lindern I, von Braun M, Lind D, Anka SM, et al. Food contamination as a pathway for lead exposure in children during the 2010–2013 lead poisoning epidemic in Zamfara, Nigeria. J Environ Sci 2018;67:260–72.10.1016/j.jes.2017.09.007Search in Google Scholar PubMed

52. Caravanos J, Dowling R, Téllez-Rojo MM, Cantoral A, Kobrosly R, Estrada D, et al. Blood lead levels in Mexico and pediatric burden of disease implications. Ann Glob Health 2014;80:269–77.10.1016/j.aogh.2014.08.002Search in Google Scholar PubMed

53. Romieu I, Carreon T, Lopez L, Palazuelos E, Rios C, Manuel Y, et al. Environmental urban lead exposure and blood lead levels in children of Mexico City. Environ Health Perspect 1995;103:1036.10.1289/ehp.951031036Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

54. Albalak R, McElroy RH, Noonan G, Buchanan S, Jones RL, Flanders WD, et al. Blood lead levels and risk factors for lead poisoning among children in a Mexican smelting community. Arch Environ Health 2003;58:172–83.Search in Google Scholar

55. Carrizales L, Razo I, Téllez-Hernández JI, Torres-Nerio R, Torres A, Batres LE, et al. Exposure to arsenic and lead of children living near a copper-smelter in San Luis Potosi, Mexico: importance of soil contamination for exposure of children. Environ Res 2006;101:1–10.10.1016/j.envres.2005.07.010Search in Google Scholar PubMed

56. Hernandez Avila M, Romieu I, Rios C, Rivero A, Palazuelos E. Lead-glazed ceramics as major determinants of blood lead levels in Mexican women. Environ Health Perspect 1991;94:117–20.10.1289/ehp.94-1567967Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

57. Pichery C, Bellanger M, Zmirou-Navier D, Glorennec P, Hartemann P, Grandjean P. Childhood lead exposure in France: benefit estimation and partial cost-benefit analysis of lead hazard control. Environ Health 2011;10:44.10.1186/1476-069X-10-44Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

58. Zahran S, Laidlaw MA, Rowe DB, Ball AS, Mielke HW. Motor neuron disease mortality and lifetime petrol lead exposure: evidence from national age-specific and state-level age-standardized death rates in Australia. Environ Res 2017;153:181–90.10.1016/j.envres.2016.11.023Search in Google Scholar PubMed

59. Taylor MP, Forbes MK, Opeskin B, Parr N, Lanphear BP. The relationship between atmospheric lead emissions and aggressive crime: an ecological study. Environ Health 2016;15:23.10.1186/s12940-016-0122-3Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

60. Reyes JW. Lead exposure and behavior: effects on antisocial and risky behavior among children and adolescents. Econ Inquiry 2015;53:1580–605.10.3386/w20366Search in Google Scholar

61. Glorennec P, Bemrah N, Tard A, Robin A, Le Bot B, Bard D. Probabilistic modeling of young children’s overall lead exposure in France: integrated approach for various exposure media. Environ Int 2007;33:937–45.10.1016/j.envint.2007.05.004Search in Google Scholar

62. Etchevers A, Bretin P, Lecoffre C, Bidondo ML, Le Strat Y, Glorennec P, et al. Blood lead levels and risk factors in young children in France, 2008–2009. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2014;217:528–37.10.1016/j.ijheh.2013.10.002Search in Google Scholar

63. Goswami K. Eye cosmetic ‘Surma’: hidden threats of lead poisoning. Indian J Clin Biochem 2013;28:71–3.10.1007/s12291-012-0235-6Search in Google Scholar

64. Pichery C, Bellanger M, Zmirou-Navier D, Glorennec P, Hartemann P, Grandjean P. Childhood lead exposure in France: benefit estimation and partial cost-benefit analysis of lead hazard control. Environ Health 2011;10:1.10.1186/1476-069X-10-44Search in Google Scholar

65. Kauppinen T, Toikkanen J, Pedersen D, Young R, Ahrens W, Boffetta P, et al. Occupational exposure to carcinogens in the European Union. Occup Environ Med 2000;57:10–8.10.1136/oem.57.1.10Search in Google Scholar

66. Leroyer A, Hemon D, Nisse C, Bazerques J, Salomez JL, Haguenoer JM. Environmental exposure to lead in a population of adults living in northern France: lead burden levels and their determinants. Sci Total Environ 2001;267:87–99.10.1016/S0048-9697(00)00762-2Search in Google Scholar

67. Jarup L. Hazards of heavy metal contamination. Br Med Bull 2003;68:167–82.10.1093/bmb/ldg032Search in Google Scholar PubMed

68. Taylor MP, Camenzuli D, Kristensen LJ, Forbes M, Zahran S. Environmental lead exposure risks associated with children’s outdoor playgrounds. Environ Pollut 2013;178:447–54.10.1016/j.envpol.2013.03.054Search in Google Scholar PubMed

69. Mackay AK, Taylor MP, Munksgaard NC, Hudson-Edwards KA, Burn-Nunes L. Identification of environmental lead sources and pathways in a mining and smelting town: Mount Isa, Australia. Environ Pollut 2013;180:304–11.10.1016/j.envpol.2013.05.007Search in Google Scholar PubMed

70. Davis JJ, Gulson BL. Ceiling (attic) dust: a “museum” of contamination and potential hazard. Environ Res 2005;99:177–94.10.1016/j.envres.2004.10.011Search in Google Scholar PubMed

71. Rossi E. Low level environmental lead exposure–a continuing challenge. Clin Biochem Rev 2008;29:63.Search in Google Scholar

72. Rosner D, Markowitz G. Building the world that kills us: the politics of lead, science, and polluted homes, 1970–2000. J Urban History 2016;42:323–45.10.1177/0096144215623954Search in Google Scholar

73. Meyer PA, Staley F, Staley P, Curtis J, Blanton C, Brown MJ. Improving strategies to prevent childhood lead poisoning using local data. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2005;208:15–20.10.1016/j.ijheh.2005.01.003Search in Google Scholar PubMed

74. Levin R, Brown MJ, Kashtock ME, Jacobs DE, Whelan EA, Rodman J, et al. Lead exposures in U.S. Children, 2008: implications for prevention. Environ Health Perspect 2008;116:1285–93.10.1289/ehp.11241Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

75. Lanphear BP, Burgoon DA, Rust SW, Eberly S, Galke W. Environmental exposures to lead and urban children’s blood lead levels. Environ Res 1998;76:120–30.10.1006/enrs.1997.3801Search in Google Scholar PubMed

76. Cleveland LM, Minter ML, Cobb KA, Scott AA, German VF. Lead hazards for pregnant women and children: part 2: more can still be done to reduce the chance of exposure to lead in at-risk populations. Am J Nurs 2008;108:40–7.10.1097/00000446-200811000-00025Search in Google Scholar

77. Hore P, Ahmed MS, Sedlar S, Saper RB, Nagin D, Clark N. Blood lead levels and potential risk factors for lead exposures among South Asians in New York City. J Immigr Minor Health 2017;19:1322–9.10.1007/s10903-016-0403-5Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

78. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Very high blood lead levels among adults-United States, 2002–2011. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2013;62:967–71.Search in Google Scholar

79. Gilbert SG, Weiss B. A rationale for lowering the blood lead action level from 10 to 2 μg/dL. Neurotoxicology 2006;27:693–701.10.1016/j.neuro.2006.06.008Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

80. Clark CS, Rampal KG, Thuppil V, Roda SM, Succop P, Menrath W, et al. Lead levels in new enamel household paints from Asia, Africa and South America. Environ Res 2009;109:930–6.10.1016/j.envres.2009.07.002Search in Google Scholar PubMed

81. Countries with legally-binding controls on lead paint; status at 20 October 2017. 2017 [cited 2018; Available from: www.who.int/gho/phe/chemical_safety/phe_lead_regulations_database.xls.Search in Google Scholar

82. Feldman N, Lamp C, Craigmill A. Lead leaching in ceramics difficult to predict. California Agriculture 1999;53:20–3.10.3733/ca.v053n05p20Search in Google Scholar

83. Prpic-Majic D, Pongracic J, Hrsak J, Pizent A. A follow-up study in a lead smelter community following the introduction of an effective pollution control system. Israel J Med Sci 1992;28:548–56.Search in Google Scholar

84. Díaz-Barriga F, Batres L, Calderón J, Lugo A, Galvao L, Lara I, et al. The El Paso smelter 20 years later: residual impact on Mexican children. Environ Res 1997;74:11–6.10.1006/enrs.1997.3741Search in Google Scholar PubMed

85. Rogan WJ, Dietrich KN, Ware JH, Dockery DW, Salganik M, Radcliffe J, et al. The effect of chelation therapy with succimer on neuropsychological development in children exposed to lead. N Engl J Med 2001;344:1421–6.10.1056/NEJM200105103441902Search in Google Scholar

86. Shen X-m, Wu S-h, Yan C-h. Impacts of low-level lead exposure on development of children: recent studies in China. Clinica Chimica Acta 2001;313:217–20.10.1016/S0009-8981(01)00675-1Search in Google Scholar

87. Silbergeld EK. The international dimensions of lead exposure. Int J Occup Environ Health 1995;1:336–48.10.1179/oeh.1995.1.4.336Search in Google Scholar PubMed

88. Navas-Acien A, Guallar E, Silbergeld EK, Rothenberg SJ. Lead exposure and cardiovascular disease: a systematic review. Environ Health Perspect 2007;115:472–82.10.1289/ehp.9785Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

89. Martin D, Glass TA, Bandeen-Roche K, Todd AC, Shi W, Schwartz BS. Association of blood lead and tibia lead with blood pressure and hypertension in a community sample of older adults. Am J Epidemiol 2006;163:467–78.10.1093/aje/kwj060Search in Google Scholar PubMed

90. Reddy KS, Yusuf S. Emerging epidemic of cardiovascular disease in developing countries. Circulation 1998;97:596–601.10.1161/01.CIR.97.6.596Search in Google Scholar

Received: 2018-06-27
Accepted: 2018-12-13
Published Online: 2019-01-09
Published in Print: 2019-03-26

©2019 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Downloaded on 4.10.2023 from https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/reveh-2018-0037/html
Scroll to top button