Abstract
Studies on the assessment of indoor air pollutants in terms of concentration and characterization in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries have been recently carried out. This review assesses the health effects associated with indoor air pollution exposures in GCC, including other air pollutants (siloxanes, flame retardants, synthetic phenolic antioxidants) which were not explored in a previous study. In addition, the influence of ventilation conditions due to different indoor environments was also investigated. It was revealed that there is a lack of human health assessment studies on most indoor air pollutants in almost all GCC countries, except the United Arab Emirates, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, where few attempts were made for some specific pollutants. Commonly reported plausible health effects potentially associated with indoor air pollution were related to respiratory symptoms and sick building syndrome (SBS). Many of the current health assessment studies in GCC countries were based on predictions and/or estimates of exposures rather than clinically based observational studies. Measured ventilation levels and indoor air velocities in most buildings failed to meet the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) threshold limits of 8 L/s/p and 0.18–0.25 m/s, respectively. Additionally, limited studies have investigated respiratory symptoms and SBS potentially attributable to poor ventilation in the region. It is highly recommended that future indoor air quality (IAQ) studies in GCC should focus more on epidemiologic and intervention studies.
Nomenclature
- 222Rn
Radon
- ASHRAE
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-conditioning Engineers
- BaP
benzo[a]pyrene
- BbF
Benzo[b]fluoranthene
- BDE
Brominated diphenyl ethers
- BDE-99
Brominated diphenyl ethers congener 99
- BHT
2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxytoluene
- BPA
Bisphenol A
- BTBPE
1,2-bis (2,4,6-tribromphenoxy) ethane
- cfm
Cubic feet per minute
- CO
Carbon monoxide
- CO2
Carbon dioxide
- COPD
Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases
- DDT
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
- DG
Dodecyl gallate
- EDI
Estimated median daily intake
- FR
Flame retardant
- GCC
Gulf Cooperation Council
- H2S
Hydrogen sulfide
- HCHO
Formaldehyde
- HRA
Health risk assessment
- IAQ
Indoor air quality
- IARC
International Agency for Research on Cancer
- ISAAC
International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Children
- KSA
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
- LOQ
Limit of quantification
- NO2
Nitrogen dioxide
- NOx
Nitrogen oxides
- NTP
National Toxicology Program
- OG
Octyl gallate
- OR
Odds ratio
- OSHA
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
- PAHs
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons
- PBDE
Polybrominated diphenyl ether
- PFR
Organophospahte flame retardants
- PG
Propyl gallate
- PM
Particulate matter
- PM2.5
Particulate matter (with aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 μm)
- PM10
Particulate matter (with aerodynamic diameter less than 10 μm)
- RfD
Reference dose
- SBS
Sick building syndrome
- SHR
School Health Registry
- SPAs
Synthetic phenolic antioxidants
- SO2
Sulfur dioxide
- TBBPA
Tetrabromobisphenol A
- TCSi
Total cyclic siloxanes
- TCEP
Tris-(2-chloroethyl)-phosphate
- TDCPP
Tris-(1,3-dichloro-isopropyl)-phosphate
- TLSi
Total linear siloxanes
- TSi
Total siloxane
- TSP
Total suspended particulate
- TVOC
Total volatile organic compound
- UAE
United Arab Emirates
- US EPA
United States Environmental Protection Agency
- VOCs
Volatile organic compounds
- WHO
World Health Organization
- ΣOCs
Organochlorines
- ΣPCBs
Polychlorinated biphenyls
- Definition of units
- Bq/m3
Becquerel per cubic meter
- cfm
cubic feet per minute
- g
Gram
- L/s
Liter per second
- L/s/p
Liter per second per person
- mg/m3
Milligram per cubic meter
- m/s
Meter per seconds
- ng/g
Nanogram per gram
- ng/kg-bw/d
Nanogram per kilogram bodyweight per day
- ppb
Parts per billion
- ppm
Parts per million
- μg/dL
Microgram of lead per decimeter of blood
- μg/g
Microgram per gram
Research funding: None declared.
Conflict of interest: The authors declare no potential conflict of interest.
Informed consent: Not applicable.
Ethical approval: Not applicable.
References
1. USEPA. Introduction to Indoor Air Quality: Indoor Air Pollution and Health United States: United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA); 2019 [cited 2019 22/05/2019]. Available from: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality.Search in Google Scholar
2. WHO. WHO guidelines for indoor air quality. Bonn, Germany: World Health Organisation; 2010:1–848.Search in Google Scholar
3. Junaid M, Syed JH, Abbasi NA, Hashmi MZ, Malik RN, Pei DS. Status of indoor air pollution (IAP) through particulate matter (PM) emissions and associated health concerns in South Asia. Chemosphere 2018;191:651–63.10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.10.097Search in Google Scholar PubMed
4. Omidvarborna H, Baawain M, Al-Mamun A. Ambient air quality and exposure assessment study of the Gulf Cooperation Council countries: a critical review. Sci Total Environ 2018;636:437–48.10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.296Search in Google Scholar PubMed
5. Amoatey P, Sulaiman H. Options for greenhouse gas mitigation strategies for road transportation in Oman. Am J Clim Change 2017;6(2):217–29.10.4236/ajcc.2017.62011Search in Google Scholar
6. Al Shidi H, Sulaiman H, Amoatey P. Shifting to renewable energy to mitigate carbon emissions: initiatives by the states of gulf cooperation council. Low Carbon Econ 2016;7(3):123–36.10.4236/lce.2016.73012Search in Google Scholar
7. Amoatey P, Omidvarborna H, Baawain MS, Al-Mamun A. Indoor air pollution and exposure assessment of the gulf cooperation council countries: a critical review. Environ Int 2018;121: 491–506.10.1016/j.envint.2018.09.043Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
8. Fanous N, editor. Secondhand Smoke Emission levels in Waterpipe Cafes in Doha, Qatar. Qatar Foundation Annual Research Conference. Doha, Qatar: Qatar Foundation Annual Research Conference Proceedings, 2016.10.5339/qfarc.2016.HBPP1265Search in Google Scholar
9. Elsayed Y, Dalibalta S, Gomes I, Fernandes N, Alqtaishat F. Chemical composition and potential health risks of raw Arabian incense (Bakhour). J Saudi Chem Soc 2016;20(4):465–73.10.1016/j.jscs.2014.10.005Search in Google Scholar
10. Wang W, Asimakopoulos AG, Abualnaja KO, Covaci A, Gevao B, Johnson-Restrepo B, et al. Synthetic phenolic antioxidants and their metabolites in indoor dust from homes and microenvironments. Environ Sci Technol 2016;50(1):428–34.10.1021/acs.est.5b04826Search in Google Scholar PubMed
11. Tran TM, Abualnaja KO, Asimakopoulos AG, Covaci A, Gevao B, Johnson-Restrepo B, et al. A survey of cyclic and linear siloxanes in indoor dust and their implications for human exposures in twelve countries. Environ Int 2015;78:39–44.10.1016/j.envint.2015.02.011Search in Google Scholar PubMed
12. Abdul-Wahab SA, editor. Study of the Indoor Air Quality in two Residential Houses according to their Ages. International Conference on Chemical, Agricultural, Biological and Health Sciences. Bali, Indonesia: International Conference on Chemical, Agricultural, Biological and Health Sciences, 2017.Search in Google Scholar
13. Yaghi B, Abdul-Wahab SA. Levels of heavy metals in outdoor and indoor dusts in Muscat, Oman. Int J Environ Sci 2004;61(3):307–14.10.1080/0020723032000203295Search in Google Scholar
14. Yeatts KB, El-Sadig M, Leith D, Kalsbeek W, Al-Maskari F, Couper D, et al. Indoor air pollutants and health in the United Arab Emirates. Environ Health Perspect 2012;120(5):687–94.10.1289/ehp.1104090Search in Google Scholar
15. Funk WE, Pleil JD, Pedit JA, Boundy MG, Yeatts KB, Nash DG, et al. Indoor air quality in the United Arab Emirates. J Environ Prot Ecol 2014;5(8):709–22.10.4236/jep.2014.58072Search in Google Scholar
16. Mashat B. Indoor and outdoor microbial aerosols at the holy mosque: a case study. Atmos Pollut Res 2015;6(6):990–6.10.1016/j.apr.2015.05.004Search in Google Scholar
17. Madany IM. Indoor residential nitrogen dioxide concentrations in Bahrain. Environ Int 1992;18:95–101.10.1016/0160-4120(92)90214-OSearch in Google Scholar
18. Gevao B, Al-Bahloul M, Zafar J, Al-Matrouk K, Helaleh M. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in indoor air and dust in Kuwait: implications for sources and nondietary human exposure. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 2007;53(4):503–12.10.1007/s00244-006-0261-6Search in Google Scholar PubMed
19. Al-Hemoud A, Al-Awadi L, Al-Rashidi M, Rahman KA, Al-Khayat A, Behbehani W. Comparison of indoor air quality in schools: urban vs. industrial ‘oil & gas’ zones in Kuwait. Build Environ 2017;122:50–60.10.1016/j.buildenv.2017.06.001Search in Google Scholar
20. Gibson JM, Farah ZS. Environmental risks to public health in the United Arab Emirates: a quantitative assessment and strategic plan. Environ Health Perspect 2012;120(5):681–6.10.1289/ehp.1104064Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
21. Gibson JM, Thomsen J, Launay F, Harder E, DeFelice N. Deaths and medical visits attributable to environmental pollution in the United Arab Emirates. PLoS One 2013;8(3):e57536.10.1371/journal.pone.0057536Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
22. Cohen R, Sexton KG, Yeatts KB. Hazard assessment of United Arab Emirates (UAE) incense smoke. Sci Total Environ 2013;458460:176–86.10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.03.101Search in Google Scholar PubMed
23. Dalibalta S, Elsayed Y, Alqtaishat F, Gomes I, Fernandes N. A health risk assessment of Arabian incense (Bakhour) smoke in the United Arab Emirates. Sci Total Environ 2015;511:684–91.10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.12.024Search in Google Scholar PubMed
24. Zaabi AA, Maboub BH, Vats MG, Iqbal MN, Vats MM. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in Middle East and UAE: an unrecognized underestimated epidemic. J Lung, Pulm Respir Res 2016;3(4):00089.Search in Google Scholar
25. Bener A, Kamal M, Shanks NJ. Impact of asthma and air pollution on school attendance of primary school children: are they at increased risk of school absenteeism? J Asthma 2007;44(4):249–52.10.1080/02770900701246725Search in Google Scholar
26. Al Mijalli SHS. Bacterial contamination of indoor air in schools of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Air Water Borne Dis 2016;6(1):1–8.10.4172/2167-7719.1000131Search in Google Scholar
27. Ali N, Ismail IMI, Khoder M, Shamy M, Alghamdi M, Costa M, et al. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in indoor dust samples from Cities of Jeddah and Kuwait: levels, sources and non-dietary human exposure. Sci Total Environ 2016;573:1607–14.10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.134Search in Google Scholar
28. Ali N, Eqani S, Ismail IMI, Malarvannan G, Kadi MW, Albar HMS, et al. Brominated and organophosphate flame retardants in indoor dust of Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: implications for human exposure. Sci Total Environ 2016;569570:269–77.10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.06.093Search in Google Scholar
29. Wan Y, Wu Q, Abualnaja KO, Asimakopoulos AG, Covaci A, Gevao B, et al. Occurrence of perchlorate in indoor dust from the United States and eleven other countries: implications for human exposure. Environ Int 2015;75:166–71.10.1016/j.envint.2014.11.005Search in Google Scholar
30. Wang W, Abualnaja KO, Asimakopoulos AG, Covaci A, Gevao B, Johnson-Restrepo B, et al. A comparative assessment of human exposure to tetrabromobisphenol A and eight bisphenols including bisphenol A via indoor dust ingestion in twelve countries. Environ Int 2015;83:183–91.10.1016/j.envint.2015.06.015Search in Google Scholar
31. Ali N, Ali L, Mehdi T, Dirtu AC, Al-Shammari F, Neels H, et al. Levels and profiles of organochlorines and flame retardants in car and house dust from Kuwait and Pakistan: implication for human exposure via dust ingestion. Environ Int 2013;55:62–70.10.1016/j.envint.2013.02.001Search in Google Scholar
32. Booij P, Holoubek I, Klanova J, Kohoutek J, Dvorska A, Magulova K, et al. Current implications of past DDT indoor spraying in Oman. Sci Total Environ 2016;550:231–40.10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.12.044Search in Google Scholar
33. Al-Rawas OA, Al-Maniri AA, Al-Riyami BM. Home exposure to Arabian incense (bakhour) and asthma symptoms in children: a community survey in two regions in Oman. BMC Pulm Med 2009;9:23.10.1186/1471-2466-9-23Search in Google Scholar
34. Fadeyi MO, Taha R. Provision of Environmentally responsible interior design solutions: case study of an office building. J Archit Eng 2013;19(1):58–70.10.1061/(ASCE)AE.1943-5568.0000098Search in Google Scholar
35. Barakat-Haddad C, Zhang S, Siddiqua A, Dghaim R. Air quality and respiratory health among adolescents from the United Arab Emirates. J Environ Public Health 2015;2015:1–13.10.1155/2015/284595Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
36. Jaber AR, Dejan M, Marcella U. The effect of indoor temperature and CO2 levels on cognitive performance of adult females in a University Building in Saudi Arabia. Energy Procedia 2017;122:451–6.10.1016/j.egypro.2017.07.378Search in Google Scholar
37. Koshak EA. Skin test reactivity to indoor allergens correlates with asthma severity in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Allergy Asthma Clin Immunol 2006;2(1):11–9.10.1186/1710-1492-2-1-11Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
38. El-Desoky GE, Aboul-Soud MA, Al-Othman ZA, Habila M, Giesy JP. Seasonal concentrations of lead in outdoor and indoor dust and blood of children in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Environ Geochem Health 2014;36(3):583–93.10.1007/s10653-013-9582-3Search in Google Scholar PubMed
39. Ma W-L, Subedi B, Kannan K. The occurrence of bisphenol A, phthalates, parabens and other environmental phenolic compounds in house dust: a review. Curr Org Chem 2014;18(17):2182–99.10.2174/1385272819666140804230205Search in Google Scholar
40. Alfoldy B. Indoor and outdoor air pollution in Doha – cases of schools and residences. Qatar Found Ann Res Conf Proc 2018;2018(1):EEPD1052.10.5339/qfarc.2018.EEPD1052Search in Google Scholar
41. Abdel-Salam MMM. Investigation of indoor air quality at urban schools in Qatar. Indoor Built Environ 2017;28(2):278–88.10.1177/1420326X17700948Search in Google Scholar
42. Obbard JP. Levels of airborne bacteria in a school classroom environment in Doha Qatar. Qatar Found Ann Res Conf Proc 2018;2018(1):EEPD1078.10.5339/qfarc.2018.EEPD1078Search in Google Scholar
43. Al-Awadi L, Khan AR. Indoor radon levels in schools and residential dwellings in Kuwait. Int J Environ Sci Technol 2019;16(6):2627–36.10.1007/s13762-018-1698-7Search in Google Scholar
44. Abdul-Wahab S, Salem N, Ali S. Investigation of the environmental indicators at the main library of Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) in the Sultanate of Oman. Sustain Environ Res 2015;25(3):131–9.Search in Google Scholar
45. GDB. Burden of lower respiratory infections in the Eastern Mediterranean Region between 1990 and 2015: findings from the Global Burden of Disease (GDB) 2015 study. Int J Public Health 2018;63(Suppl 1):97–108.10.1007/s00038-017-1007-0Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
46. Hamadeh RR, Al-Roomi KA. Air quality and seasonal variations in consultations for respiratory, allergic, dermatological and gastrointestinal diseases in Bahrain, 2007. East Mediterr Health J 2014;20(5):309–16.10.26719/2014.20.5.309Search in Google Scholar
47. Bentayeb M, Norback D, Bednarek M, Bernard A, Cai G, Cerrai S, et al. Indoor air quality, ventilation and respiratory health in elderly residents living in nursing homes in Europe. Eur Respir J 2015;45(5):1228–38.10.1183/09031936.00082414Search in Google Scholar
48. Sundell J, Levin H, Nazaroff WW, Cain WS, Fisk WJ, Grimsrud DT, et al. Ventilation rates and health: multidisciplinary review of the scientific literature. Indoor Air 2011;21(3):191–204.10.1111/j.1600-0668.2010.00703.xSearch in Google Scholar
49. Behzadi N, Fadeyi MO. A preliminary study of indoor air quality conditions in Dubai public elementary schools. Architect Eng Des Manag 2012;8(3):192–213.10.1080/17452007.2012.683243Search in Google Scholar
50. El-Sharkawy MF, Javed W. Study of indoor air quality level in various restaurants in Saudi Arabia. Environ Prog Sustain Energy 2018;37(5):1713–21.10.1002/ep.12859Search in Google Scholar
51. Indraganti M, Boussaa D. Comfort temperature and occupant adaptive behavior in offices in Qatar during summer. Energy Build 2017;150:23–36.10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.05.063Search in Google Scholar
52. Elkilani A, Bouhamra W. Estimation of optimum requirements for indoor air quality and energy consumption in some residences in Kuwait. Environ Int 2001;27:443–7.10.1016/S0160-4120(01)00096-4Search in Google Scholar
53. Al-Hemoud A, Al-Awadi L, Al-Khayat A, Behbehani W. Streamlining IAQ guidelines and investigating the effect of door opening/closing on concentrations of VOCs, formaldehyde, and NO2 in office buildings. Build Environ 2018;137:127–37.10.1016/j.buildenv.2018.03.029Search in Google Scholar
54. Abdul-Wahab SA, Salem NMB. Is your library building sick? A case study from the main library of Sultan Qaboos University at Sultanate of Oman. In: Abdul-Wahab SA, editor. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2011:207–38.Search in Google Scholar
55. Institute of Medicine. Clearing the air: asthma and indoor air exposures. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2000:456.Search in Google Scholar
56. Singh A, Kesavachandran CN, Kamal R, Bihari V, Ansari A, Azeez PA, et al. Indoor air pollution and its association with poor lung function, microalbuminuria and variations in blood pressure among kitchen workers in India: a cross-sectional study. Environ Health 2017;16(1):33.10.1186/s12940-017-0243-3Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
57. Rawi NA, Jalaludin J, Chua PC. Indoor air quality and respiratory health among Malay preschool children in Selangor. Biomed Res Int 2015;2015:248178.Search in Google Scholar
58. Kim EH, Kim S, Lee JH, Kim J, Han Y, Kim YM, et al. Indoor air pollution aggravates symptoms of atopic dermatitis in children. PLoS One 2015;10(3):e0119501.10.1371/journal.pone.0119501Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
59. Mu L, Liu L, Niu R, Zhao B, Shi J, Li Y, et al. Indoor air pollution and risk of lung cancer among Chinese female non-smokers. Cancer Causes Control 2013;24(3):439–50.10.1007/s10552-012-0130-8Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
60. Allen JG, Gale S, Zoeller RT, Spengler JD, Birnbaum L, McNeely E. PBDE flame retardants, thyroid disease, and menopausal status in U.S. women. Environ Health 2016;15(1):60.10.1186/s12940-016-0141-0Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
61. Wargocki P. The effects of ventilation in homes on health. Int J Vent 2013;12(2):101–18.10.1080/14733315.2013.11684005Search in Google Scholar
62. Francisco PW, Jacobs DE, Targos L, Dixon SL, Breysse J, Rose W, et al. Ventilation, indoor air quality, and health in homes undergoing weatherization. Indoor Air 2017;27(2):463–77.10.1111/ina.12325Search in Google Scholar PubMed
©2020 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
