Abstract
In a numeral classifier language, a sortal classifier (C) or a mensural classifier (M) is needed when a noun is quantified by a numeral (Num). Num and C/M are adjacent cross-linguistically, either in a [Num C/M] order or [C/M Num]. Likewise, in a complex numeral with a multiplicative composition, the base may follow the multiplier as in [n×base], e.g., san-bai ‘three hundred’ in Mandarin. However, the base may also precede the multiplier in some languages, thus [base×n]. Interestingly, base and C/M seem to harmonize in word order, i.e., [n×base] numerals appear with a [Num C/M] alignment, and [base×n] numerals, with [C/M Num]. This paper follows up on the explanation of the base-C/M harmonization based on the multiplicative theory of classifiers and verifies it empirically within six language groups in the world’s foremost hotbed of classifier languages: Sinitic, Miao-Yao, Austro-Asiatic, Tai-Kadai, Tibeto-Burman, and Indo-Aryan. Our survey further reveals two interesting facts: base-initial ([base×n]) and C/M-initial ([C/M Num]) orders exist only in Tibeto-Burman (TB) within our dataset. Moreover, the few scarce violations to the base-C/M harmonization are also all in TB and are mostly languages having maintained their original base-initial numerals but borrowed from their base-final and C/M-final neighbors. We thus offer an explanation based on Proto-TB’s base-initial numerals and language contact with neighboring base-final, C/M-final languages.
Acknowledgments
We thank the anonymous reviewers and the editors for their constructive comments, which led to significant improvements of the paper. All remaining errors are our own. We gratefully acknowledge the financial support by Taiwan’s Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) via the following grants awarded to O.-S Her: 101-2410-H-004-184-MY3, 104-2633-H-004-001, 104-2410-H-004-164-MY3, and 106-2410-H-004-106-MY3.
Appendix – Classifier languages in SMATTI
| Sinitic | ||
|---|---|---|
| Dungan | Mandarin Chinese | Pu-Xian Chinese |
| Gan Chinese | Min Bei Chinese | Wu Chinese |
| Hakka Chinese | Min Dong Chinese | Xiang Chinese |
| Huizhou Chinese | Min Nan Chinese | Yue Chinese |
| Jinyu Chinese | Min Zhong Chinese |
| Miao-Yao | ||
|---|---|---|
| Biao-Jiao Mien | Hmong Njua | Pa-Hng |
| Bu-Nao Bunu | Jiongnai Bunu | She |
| Hmong daw | Northern Qiandong Miao |
| Austro-Asiatic | ||
|---|---|---|
| Blang | Khasi | Parauk Wa |
| Bondo | Khmu | Pear |
| Bugan | Lave | Pnar |
| Car Nicobarese | Lyngngam | Prai |
| Central Khmer | Mae Hong Son Lawa | Ruching Palaung |
| Chong | Mah Meri | Samre |
| Chrau | Mal | Samtao |
| Eastern Bru | Man Met | Santali |
| Eastern Katu | Mang | Sapuan |
| Jah Hut | Mon | Sedang |
| Jeh | Northern Khmer | Semelai |
| Jehai | Nyahkur | So |
| Kharia | Pacoh | Vietnamese |
| Tai-Kadai | ||
|---|---|---|
| Ahom | Lingao | Sui |
| Baha Buyang | Liujiang Zhuang | Tai Daeng |
| Biao | Lu | Tai Dam |
| Bouyei | Mak | Tai Don |
| Chadong | Maonan | Tai Nua |
| Cun | Mulam | Ten |
| Dai Zhuang | Nong Zhuang | Thai |
| Gelao | Northern Dong | White Gelao |
| Guibei Zhuang | Nung | Yang Zhuang |
| Guibian Zhuang | Qabiao | Yongbei Zhuang |
| Hlai | Red Gelao | Youjiang Zhuang |
| Lachi | Saek | Zuojiang Zhuang |
| Lakkia | Shan | |
| Lao | Southern Dong |
| Tibeto-Burman | ||
|---|---|---|
| Achang | Haka Chin | Rawang |
| Adi | Hani | Sangkong |
| Akha | Hmar | Sani |
| Angami Naga | Horpa | Sgaw Karen |
| Anu | Idu-Mishmi | Shixing |
| Apatani | Inpui Naga | Simte |
| Atong | Jiarong | Southern Bai |
| Axi | Jingpho | Southern Pumi |
| Azhe | Kado | Southern Qiang |
| Baima | Karbi | Southern Tujia |
| Bantawa | Katso | Sunwar |
| Bhujel | Kok Borok | Tawang Monpa |
| Bisu | Konyak Naga | Thado Chin |
| Bodo | Lahu | Thangmi |
| Burmese | Lashi | Thulung |
| Camling | Leinong Naga | Tiwa |
| Central Bai | Lhao Vo | Tshangla |
| Chak | Lisu | Ugong |
| Chantyal | Miri | Usoi |
| Chhintange | Mizo | Vaiphei |
| Daai Chin | Muya | Wambule |
| Deori | Namuyi | Wayu |
| Dhimal | Newar | Western Gurung |
| Dimasa | Nocte Naga | Western Kayah |
| Drung | Northern Bai | Xiandao |
| Dumi | Northern Pumi | Yakha |
| Eastern Kayah | Northern Qiang | Yamphu |
| Ersu | Northern Tujia | Youle Jinuo |
| Falam Chin | Nung | Zaiwa |
| Galo Adi | Paite Chin | Zauzou |
| Gangte | Pela | Zhaba |
| Garo | Puma | Zou |
| Geba Karen | Queyu | |
| Guiqiong | Rabha |
| Indo-Aryan | ||
|---|---|---|
| Assamese | Chhattisgarhi | Maithili |
| Awadhi | Darai | Marathi |
| Balkan Romani | Fiji Hindi | Nepali |
| Bengali | Gujarati | Oriya |
| Bhojpuri | Halbi | Rajbanshi |
| Bishnupriya | Hindi | Sadri |
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