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Nominal and pronominal gender: Putting Greenberg’s Universal 43 to the test

  • Thomas Berg EMAIL logo

Abstract

The aim of this study is to scrutinize Greenberg’s Universal 43, which predicts pronominal gender in the presence of nominal gender. On the basis of a sample of 500 gendered and ungendered languages, gender marking is examined in nouns, personal pronouns, possessors and possessums. Ungendered languages outnumber gendered languages. Eight out of 12 logically possible gender constellations are attested in the database. In keeping with Greenberg, languages with nominal gender show a strong bias towards gendered pronouns. There is a strong correlation between gendered personal pronouns and gendered possessors. Gendered possessums are cross-linguistically uncommon. The empirical patterns are brought about by a small set of theoretical principles. Gender is independently specified for each category. Gender marking is an effort. The strength of the correlation depends on the “distance” between two given gender sites. Coding gender twice in the same time frame creates a processing difficulty. Natural and grammatical gender conspire to generate the gender sensitivity of individual categories.


Corresponding author: Thomas Berg, University of Hamburg, Institute of English and American Studies, Überseering 35, 22297 Hamburg, Germany, E-mail:

Acknowledgments

A preliminary report was delivered at the University of Münster on a day in July 2017 which I will not forget for the rest of my life. Johanna Stahnke made a useful suggestion in the early stages of this project which had a significant impact on the later stages. Florian Dolberg’s and the reviewers’ comments contributed to making this a better paper. Charlotte Lehr took perfect care of all the small and not-so-small chores which I was unwilling or unable to do myself. Several student assistants, including Tamara Nehls, Sebastian Anderβen, Britta Zemke and Marlene Sagebiel, helped me locate the large number of sources on which this project rests. The following people are almost all native speakers of languages which have found their way into this study: Simone Lechner (Afrikaans), Adelina Krasniqi (Albanian), Getie Gelaye (Amharic), Phillip Rogers (Bitur), Júlio Matias (Brazilian Portuguese), Elena Kireva (Bulgarian), Arndt Wigger (Celtic), Petr Málek (Czech), Olivia Kelly (Danish), Yaron Matras (Domari), Jannis Androutsopoulos (Greek), Daniel Weissmann (Hebrew), Harumi Matsumura (Japanese), Shakiripur Sridhar (Kannada), Ram Prasad Bhatt (Konkani), Marija Borisevic (Lithuanian), Nicholas Reid (Ngan’gityemerri), Ekaterina Padaliak (Russian), Nevena Zaric (Serbian) and Sumera Ahmad (Urdu). All these people deserve my sincere thanks.

Abbreviations

det

determiner

f

feminine

m

masculine

n1

neuter 1

n2

neuter 2

poss

possessor

sg

singular

Appendix

The sample of gendered languages
LanguageMacroareaFamilyGenusNominal genderPersonal-pronoun genderPossessor genderPossessum gender
AbauPapunesiaSepikUpper Sepik+++
AbkhazEurasiaNorthwest CaucasianNorthwest Caucasian+++
AfrikaansAfricaIndo-EuropeanGermanic++
AlamblakPapunesiaSepikSepik Hill+++
AlawaAustraliaMangarrayi-MaranAlawa++++
AlbanianEurasiaIndo-EuropeanAlbanian++++
AmharicAfricaAfro-AsiaticSemitic+++
ArabicAfricaAfro-AsiaticSemitic+++
Arapesh (Mountain)PapunesiaTorricelliKombio-Arapesh++++
ArawakSouth AmericaArawakanCaribbean Arawakan+++
ArboreAfricaAfro-AsiaticLowland East Cushitic++++
AssameseEurasiaIndo-EuropeanIndic++
AvarEurasiaNakh-DaghestanianAvar-Andic-Tsezic+++
BarasanoSouth AmericaTucanoanTucanoan++++
BaréSouth AmericaArawakanInland Northern Arawakan+++
BejaAfricaAfro-AsiaticBeja++++
Berber (Rif)AfricaAfro-AsiaticBerber++
Berber (Siwa)AfricaAfro-AsiaticBerber++
BhojpuriEurasiaIndo-EuropeanIndic+
BhumijEurasiaAustro-AsiaticMunda+
BiluaPapunesiaSolomons East PapuanBilua++
Bininj Gun-WokAustraliaGunwinyguanGunwinygic+++
BiturPapunesiaTrans-New GuineaTirio++++
BoraSouth AmericaHuitotoanBoran++
BretonEurasiaIndo-EuropeanCeltic+++
BrokskatEurasiaIndo-EuropeanIndic+++
BulgarianEurasiaIndo-EuropeanSlavic++++
BurungeAfricaAfro-AsiaticSouthern Cushitic++
BurushaskiEurasiaBurushaskiBurushaski+++
Campa (Axininca)South AmericaArawakanPre-Andine Arawakan+++
CatalanEurasiaIndo-EuropeanRomance+++
CèmuhîPapunesiaAustronesianOceanic+
Chinantec (Lealao)North AmericaOto-MangueanChinantecan+
ChoroteSouth AmericaMatacoanMatacoan++
CopticAfricaAfro-AsiaticEgyptian-Coptic++++
CulinaSouth AmericaArauanArauan+++
CzechEurasiaIndo-EuropeanSlavic+++
DahaloAfricaAfro-AsiaticDahalo++++
DanishEurasiaIndo-EuropeanGermanic+++
DhaasanacAfricaAfro-AsiaticLowland East Cushitic+
DiyariAustraliaPama-NyunganCentral Pama-Nyungan++
DiziAfricaAfro-AsiaticDizoid+++
DomariEurasiaIndo-EuropeanIndic+
DutchEurasiaIndo-EuropeanGermanic+++
EmmiAustraliaWestern DalyWagaydy++
EnglishEurasiaIndo-EuropeanGermanic++
FaroeseEurasiaIndo-EuropeanGermanic+++
FrenchEurasiaIndo-EuropeanRomance+++
FrisianEurasiaIndo-EuropeanGermanic+++
GalelaPapunesiaWest PapuanNorth Halmaheran++
GermanEurasiaIndo-EuropeanGermanic++++
GreekEurasiaIndo-EuropeanGreek++++
GujaratiEurasiaIndo-EuropeanIndic+
HadzaAfricaHadzaHadza++++
Halkomelem (Upriver)North AmericaSalishanCentral Salish++
HausaAfricaAfro-AsiaticWest Chadic+++
HawramiEurasiaIndo-EuropeanIranian++
HebrewEurasiaAfro-AsiaticSemitic+++
IcelandicEurasiaIndo-EuropeanGermanic+++
IngushEurasiaNakh-DaghestanianNakh+
IraqwAfricaAfro-AsiaticSouthern Cushitic++
IrishEurasiaIndo-EuropeanCeltic+++
ItalianEurasiaIndo-EuropeanRomance+++
JapaneseEurasiaJapaneseJapanese++
Jur MödöAfricaCentral SudanicBongo-Bagirmi++
KadiwéuSouth AmericaGuaicuruanKadiwéu+++
KannadaEurasiaDravidianSouthern Dravidian+++
KarimojongAfricaEastern SudanicNilotic+
KashmiriEurasiaIndo-EuropeanIndic+++
KatiEurasiaTrans-New GuineaNuristani+++
KaulongPapunesiaAustronesianOceanic++
KeraAfricaAfro-AsiaticEast Chadic+++
KetEurasiaYeniseianYeniseian+++
Khmu’EurasiaAustro-AsiaticPalaung-Khmuic++
Khoekhoe (Hottentot)AfricaKhoe-KwadiKhoe-Kwadi++
KhwarshiEurasiaNakh-DaghestanianAvar-Andic-Tsezic+++
KolamiEurasiaDravidianCentral Dravidian+++
KonkaniEurasiaIndo-EuropeanIndic++++
KoreanEurasiaKoreanKorean++
KrongoAfricaKaduKadugli+++
KuotPapunesiaKuotKuot++++
KurdishEurasiaIndo-EuropeanIranian+++
Kwoma (Washkuk)PapunesiaSepikMiddle Sepik++
LatinEurasiaIndo-EuropeanRomance+++
LatvianEurasiaIndo-EuropeanBaltic+++
LavukalevePapunesiaSolomons East PapuanLavukaleve++
LeleAfricaAfro-AsiaticEast Chadic++++
LithuanianEurasiaIndo-EuropeanBaltic+++
LothaEurasiaSino-TibetanKuki-Chin++
MacedonianEurasiaIndo-EuropeanSlavic++++
MalakmalakAustraliaNorthern DalyNorthern Daly++
MalayalamEurasiaDravidianSouthern Dravidian+++
MalteseEurasiaAfro-AsiaticSemitic+++
MangarrayiAustraliaMangarrayi-MaranMangarrayi+++
MaraAustraliaMangarrayi-MaranMara+
MarathiEurasiaIndo-EuropeanIndic+++
MarindPapunesiaMarindMarind Proper+++
MaungAustraliaIwaidjanIwaidjan++++
MaybratPapunesiaWest PapuanNorth-Central Bird’s Head+++
MianPapunesiaTrans-New GuineaOk+++
Mixtec (Chalcatongo)North AmericaOto-MangueanMixtecan++
MiyaAfricaAfro-AsiaticWest Chadic++++
MoseténSouth AmericaMosetenanMosetenan++++
MotunaPapunesiaEast BougainvilleEast Bougainville++
Murrinh-PathaAustraliaSouthern DalyMurrinh-Patha++
MussauPapunesiaAustronesianOceanic+
NdjébbanaAustraliaMangridaNdjébbana+++
NepaliEurasiaIndo-EuropeanIndic+
Ngan’gityemerriAustraliaSouthern DalyNgankikurungkurr+++
NgankikurungkurrAustraliaSouthern DalyNgankikurungkurr+++
NharoAfricaKhoe-KwadiKhoe-Kwadi+++
NorwegianEurasiaIndo-EuropeanGermanic+++
OccitanEurasiaIndo-EuropeanRomance+++
OloPapunesiaTorricelliWapei-Palei+++
OneidaNorth AmericaIroquoianNorthern Iroquoian++
OnondagaNorth AmericaIroquoianNorthern Iroquoian++
OromoAfricaAfro-AsiaticLowland East Cushitic+++
PáezSouth AmericaPáezanPáezan++
PanjabiEurasiaIndo-EuropeanIndic++
PashtoEurasiaIndo-EuropeanIranian++
PaumaríSouth AmericaArauanArauan++
PengoEurasiaDravidianSouth Central Dravidian+++
PirahãSouth AmericaMuraMura++
PiroSouth AmericaArawakanPurus+++
PolishEurasiaIndo-EuropeanSlavic+++
Pomo (Eastern)North AmericaHokanPomoan++
Pomo (Northern)North AmericaHokanPomoan++
Pomo (Southeastern)North AmericaHokanPomoan++
PortugueseEurasiaIndo-EuropeanRomance+++
QuileuteNorth AmericaChimakuanChimakuan+++
RembarngaAustraliaGunwinyguanRembarnga++
RendilleAfricaAfro-AsiaticLowland East Cushitic+++
RetuarãSouth AmericaTucanoanTucanoan+++
Rhaeto-RomanceEurasiaIndo-EuropeanRomance+++
RomanianEurasiaIndo-EuropeanRomance+++
RonAfricaAfro-AsiaticWest Chadic++++
SardinianEurasiaIndo-EuropeanRomance+++
SavosavoPapunesiaSolomons East PapuanSavosavo++++
SemaEurasiaSino-TibetanKuki-Chin++
SenecaNorth AmericaIroquoianNorthern Iroquoian++
SerbianEurasiaIndo-EuropeanSlavic++++
ShekoAfricaAfro-AsiaticNorth Omotic+++
ShinasshaAfricaAfro-AsiaticNorth Omotic+++
SidaamaAfricaAfro-AsiaticHighland East Cushitic+++
SloveneEurasiaIndo-EuropeanSlavic++++
SomaliAfricaAfro-AsiaticLowland East Cushitic++++
SpanishEurasiaIndo-EuropeanRomance++
SwedishEurasiaIndo-EuropeanGermanic+++
Taiap (Gapun)PapunesiaGapunGapun+++
TamilEurasiaDravidianSouthern Dravidian+++
TatiEurasiaIndo-EuropeanIranian+++
Teso (Ateso)AfricaEastern SudanicNilotic+
TicunaSouth AmericaTicunaTicuna++
TidorePapunesiaWest PapuanNorth Halmaheran++
TigréAfricaAfro-AsiaticSemitic+++
TiwiAustraliaTiwianTiwian++++
Ts’amakkoAfricaAfro-AsiaticLowland East Cushitic++++
TunicaNorth AmericaTunicaTunica++++
UkrainianEurasiaIndo-EuropeanSlavic+++
UngarinjinAustraliaWorrorranWorrorran++++
UrduEurasiaIndo-EuropeanIndic++
WambayaAustraliaMirndiWambayan++++
WarekenaSouth AmericaArawakanInland Northern Arawakan+++
Wari’South AmericaChapacura-WanhamChapacura-Wanham+++
WarndarangAustraliaMangarrayi-MaranWarndarang++
WelshEurasiaIndo-EuropeanCeltic+++
YiddishEurasiaIndo-EuropeanGermanic+++
YimasPapunesiaLower Sepik-RamuLower Sepik+
ZandeAfricaNiger-CongoUbangi+++
Zapotec (Zaniza)North AmericaOto-MangueanZapotecan++
ZayAfricaAfro-AsiaticSemitic+++
ZazakiEurasiaIndo-EuropeanIranian+++

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Published Online: 2020-11-05
Published in Print: 2020-11-26

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