Abstract
This article examines the widespread hypothesis that German-speaking Swiss cantons exhibit radical-democratic characteristics, while the Latin cantons possess stronger liberal-representative democratic profiles. Empirical and multi-dimensional measuring of the quality of democracy in the cantons shows that this hypothesis does not do the complexity of cantonal democracy justice. Today’s position of the cantons along the axes of liberal and radical democracy is best explained with reference to the strong liberal and democratic constitutional movements within the cantons during the middle of the 19th century.
Appendix: Short definitions of the indicators used
Liberal Dimensions
| Liberal Constitutionalism | |
|---|---|
| Individual freedom | |
| Freedom rights | |
| kv_frr_priva | Constitutionally guaranteed protection of the privacy sphere |
| kv_frr_dign | Constitutionally guaranteed protection of human |
| kv_frr_life | Constitutionally guaranteed right to life, physical and psychic integrity |
| kv_frr_info | Constitutionally guaranteed freedom of information |
| kv_frr_data | Constitutionally guaranteed protection against misuse of personal data |
| kv_frr_mov | Constitutionally guaranteed freedom of movement |
| kv_frr_sciart | Constitutionally guaranteed right to academic freedom and freedom of art |
| kv_frr_fam | Constitutionally guaranteed right to marry and to found a family |
| kv_frr_opin | Constitutionally guaranteed freedom of opinion (building, uttering, propagating, and receiving) |
| kv_frr_bel | Constitutionally guaranteed freedom of faith, conscience and creed |
| Property rights | |
| kv_frr_home | Constitutionally guaranteed protection of the sanctities of the home |
| kv_frr_est | Constitutionally guaranteed freedom of establishment |
| kv_frr_prop | Constitutionally guaranteed protection of property |
| kv_frr_econ | Constitutionally guaranteed freedom of trade and occupational choice |
| kv_frr_expro | Constitutionally guaranteed restrictions to expropriation |
| Acceptance of laws and regulations | |
| kv_grr_rel | Constitutionally codified duty to respect the rights of others when exercising one’s own basic liberties |
| kv_legdut | Explicit constitutional codification of everybody’s obligation to comply with his legal duties |
| kv_ordsec | Constitutional codification of the state’s responsibility to protect the public security and order |
| crime_rate_N | Number of convictions under the penal law, per 1000 inhabitants (inverse) |
| Limited scope ot the state | |
| Actual scope | |
| Staatko_od_N | Total public expenditures by canton and municipalities, in CHF per capita (inverse) |
| Verko_od_N | Cantonal (and municipal) expenditures for general administration and authorities, in CHF per capita (inverse) |
| verwdich_ktgem | Public employees of canton and municipalities together, per 100 inhabitants (inverse) |
| Constitutional provisions | |
| kv_check | Constitutional codification of a continuous assessment of public tasks for their necessity/portability |
| kv_budlim | Constitutional codification of the principles of an economical and balanced budget management of the state |
| kv_finvorb | Constitutional codification of conditional financing before adopting new public tasks |
| kv_taxhurd | Constitutional codification of institutional barriers for tax increases |
| Rule of law | |
| Supremacy of the law | |
| Formal supremacy of the law | |
| kv_pr_hear | Constitutional codification of a right to a court hearing |
| kv_gesvorb | Constitutional codification of legal proviso |
| kv_retroban | Constitutional codification of the prohibition on retroactive legislation |
| kv_pr_judgm | Constitutional codification of a right for justified court ruling and instruction on the right to appeal |
| kv_willkverb | Constitutional codification of the prohibition of arbitrariness |
| Substantive supremacy of the law | |
| kv_grr_restr | Constitutional restrictions of curtailing basic rights |
| kv_grrkern | Constitutional codification of the inviolability of the core of basic rights |
| kv_grrbind | Constitutional codification the commitment of public power and individuals to the basic rights |
| Legal equality | |
| kv_pr_fair | Constitutional codification of the right for a fair (/and equal) treatment in court hearings |
| kv_gratadvice | Constitutional codification of the right for a free legal advice |
| kv_pr_grat | Constitutional codification of the right of deprived people for free legal assistance and legal aid |
| kv_diskrverb | Explicit constitutional prohibition of discriminating/benefitting certain groups with regard to the equality before the law |
| kv_rechtsgl | Explicit constitutional codification of a general equality before the law |
| Protection of minorities | |
| Voting behavior favoring minorities | |
| MF_Frauen | Minority-friendliness of cantonal voting results at national polls regarding women |
| MF_Sprachmind | Minority-friendliness of cantonal voting results at national polls regarding language minorities |
| MF_Alte | Minority-friendliness of cantonal voting results at national polls regarding elderly people |
| MF_Behinderte | Minority-friendliness of cantonal voting results at national polls regarding handicapped people |
| MF_Auslaend | Minority-friendliness of cantonal voting results at national polls regarding foreigners |
| MF_Militaerverw | Minority-friendliness of cantonal voting results at national polls regarding deniers of military service |
| MF_Junge_Stim | Minority-friendliness of cantonal voting results at national polls regarding the voting right of younger people |
| Consitutional provisions | |
| kv_frr_lang | Constitutional guarantee of language freedom |
| kv_minprot | Constitutional codification of the protection of the rights of minorities |
| kv_frr_cohab | Constitutional guarantee of the freedom of the form of cohabitation |
| Horizontal accountability | |
| Strength of parliament versus government | |
| Independence | |
| Eröffnung_N | Opening of the new legislature period by government (inverse) |
| Parlamentsdienst | Independent parliamentary secretariat resp. later parliamentary services |
| Id_Unver | Incompatibility of governmentary and parliamentary mandate |
| Supervisory powers | |
| Akteneinsicht_Au | Insight in files by inspection commissions |
| Inforecht | Information right of members of parliament explicitly codified |
| Akteneinsicht_all | Inquiry and insight in files by general commissions |
| PUK | Possibility of inserting a (powerfull) parliamentary fact finding commission legally provided |
| Konfliktregelung | Final decision-making competence in case of conflict between member of parliament and government |
| Legislative powers | |
| Legislative competencies of parliament | |
| Reg_programm | Parliament treats government program |
| ParlInit | Possibility of parliamentary initiative |
| Fragestunde | Possiblity of question time |
| Legislative competencies of government | |
| Finanzbefugnisse | Financial competences of government (inverse) |
| Dringlichkeitsrec | Right of urgent acts by government (invers) |
| Notrecht_N | Right in state of emergency by government (inverse) |
| Power sharing in parliament | |
| Regulations to support power sharing | |
| kv_readings | Constitutionally defined number of readings before adoption of laws by parliament |
| minfrakrel_N | Number of members of parliament necessary for building a fraction, in relation to the number of seats in parliament (inverse) |
| Strength of the opposition | |
| Oppositionsstaerk | Index of effective power of opposition parties versus governing parties in parliament (seat shares) |
| CoalitType2 | Coalition type of government (minority, surplus majority, minimal winning, hegemonial) |
| Judicial independence | |
| Separation from executive and legislature | |
| Unvereinbar_KR | Incompatibility of mandate at the cantonal high court with parliamentary mandate |
| Funktionelle Una | Independence of courts/jurisdiction codified in constitution or law |
| Unvereinbar_RR | Incompatibility of mandate at the cantonal high court with government mandate |
| Personal independence | |
| Unvereinbar_An | Incompatibility of mandate at the cantonal high court with mandate as advocate |
| Präsidentenwahl | Instance for confirming resp. electing the president of the cantonal high court |
| Unvereinbar_VR | Incompatibility of mandate at the cantonal high court with an administrative board mandate |
| Amtsdauer | Term of office of judges at the cantonal high court |
| Amtszeitbeschrän | Limitation of term of office at the cantonal high court (inverse) |
| Professionalization | |
| Eignungsprüfung | Instance for controlling ability and eligibility of candidates for the cantonal high court |
| Wahlvorbereitung | Instance preparing elections |
| Aufsichtsorgan | Instance of superintendence |
| Organizational independence | |
| Budgetrecht | Courts are sovereign in budgetary matters |
| Verwaltungsauto | Constitutionally or legally codified right of autonomous administration of courts or jurisdiction |
| Antragsrecht_Parl | Right for applying for finances directly at the parliament |
| Anstellung_Kanzl | Appointment of chancellery by highest cantonal court |
| Independent controlling instances | |
| Administrative jurisdiction | |
| Verwaltungsgeric | Administrative court as ultimate authority in disputes concerning administrative law |
| Generalklausel | Efficacy of administrative court |
| VerwaltungsG_Ja | Years since introduction of an administrative court |
| Rechtsweggaranti | Guaranteed recourse to the cantonal courts also in cases concerning federal administrative law |
| Constitutional review | |
| Verfassungsgeric | Institutionalized constitutional court |
| VerfG_Index | Index of powers of courts regarding constitutional review |
| Independent supervisory authorities | |
| Ombuds | Existence of a cantonal ombudsman |
| FK_Umfang | Scope of financial control |
| kv_fincont | Constitutionally guaranteed independence of financial control |
| Electoral accountability | |
| Secret elections | |
| Free, secret, and regular elections | |
| secelec_parl | Secret ballot at elections of cantonal parliament |
| secelec_reg | Secret ballot at elections of cantonal government |
| Competition | |
| Electoral vulnerability in government | |
| CompRegElec2 | Difference between number of candidates and number of mandates in last total renewal elections |
| Kampfwahl_Reg | More candidates than seats in last total renewal elections |
| wett_reg_se | 100% minus seat share of strongest party in government |
| Electoral vulnerability in parliament | |
| wett_parl2_se_N | Difference between largest and second largest party in parliament, in % of all seats (inverse) |
| wett_parl_se | 100% minus seat share of strongest party in parliament |
| Electoral availability | |
| Electorate’s readiness to change their party vote | |
| Volatilitaet_se_ye | Parliamentary volatility: Netto change of seat shares of parties, standardized for the length of legislature |
| reg_stab2 | Change in party composition of government |
| Clarity of governmental responsibility | |
| Clarity of governmental responsibility | |
| reg_party_N | Number of governing parties (inverse) |
| spann_N | Range of party composition of governing coalition (inverse) |
| Governmental autonomy | |
| Independence from the people between elections | |
| reglegisl | Term of office of government, in years |
| parlegisl | Term of office in parliament, in years |
| Referendumsauss | No subsequent referendum possible in case of urgent acts, according to constitution |
| Independence from specific interests | |
| kv_transpint | Constitutional codification of an obligation of members of parliament to disclose interest bonds |
| kv_freemand | Constitutional codification of a free mandate for members of parliament |
| Autonomy from other state levels | |
| transfer_N | Total revenues received from the federal state, in CHF per capita (inverse) |
| gem_init_ref2_N | Right of initiative and referendum for single municipalities on cantonal laws (inverse) |
| Radical Dimensions | |
| Radical Participation | |
| Extended electoral rights | |
| Direct popular elections | |
| volkwahl | Years gone by since the introduction of direct popular election of cantonal executive |
| regpraes_volkwa | Election of the executive’s president in popular elections |
| Ernennungsbehör | Popular elections for the judges of the highest cantonal court |
| beratung_wahl | Institutionalized opportunitiy for the citizens to collectively deliberate on elections and candidates |
| Possibility of recall | |
| recall_reg | Possibility to recall the cantonal executive from office ahead of time by a popular initiative |
| recall_parl | Possibility to recall the cantonal parliament from office ahead of time by a popular initiative |
| Direct democracy competencies | |
| Rights of initiative and referendum | |
| GIR | Index for the institutional openness of the popular statutory initiative, as proposed by Stutzer (1999) |
| VIR | Index for the institutional openness of the popular constitutional initiative, as proposed by Stutzer (1999) |
| GRR | Index for the institutional openness of the statutory referendum, as proposed by Stutzer (1999) |
| FRR | Index for the institutional openness of the fiscal referendum, as proposed by Stutzer (1999) |
| Other direct democracy instruments | |
| verfahrinit_scope | Existence and scope of a popular right to propose a different order of votes, postponement of authorities’ projects, and/or revision of such projects |
| beratung_sach | Institutionalized opportunitiy for the citizens to collectively deliberate on the issues put to popular vote |
| KRR | Index for the existence and institutional openness of the “constructive referendum” |
| Use of direct democracy competencies | |
| Frequent ballots | |
| Initot | Number of popular initiatives put to vote |
| Reftot | Number of referendums put to vote |
| Local self-government | |
| Financial and perceived municipal autonomy | |
| foed_tax_N | Size of municipal as compared to cantonal fiscal revenues |
| foed_schreiber | Degree of local autonomy as perceieved and reported by the heads of municipal administrations |
| Constitutional municipal autonomy | |
| kv_gembest | Constitutionally guaranteed right for the existing municipalities to continued existence |
| kv_gemaut | Constitutional codification of municipal autonomy |
| kv_gemfusion | Constitutional provisions concerning mergers of municipalities |
| Public accountability | |
| Transparency of political processes | |
| Transparency of parliament and communication by authorities | |
| kv_vernehml | Explicit constitutional codification of the mechanism of consultation |
| oeffprinz | Legal enactment of the general rule that any governmental documents are freely accessible to the public |
| kv_behinfo | Constitutionally codified duty of the authorities to inform the public about their activities |
| ParlSecretSess_N | Provisions concerning the possibility of secret sessions or secret decisions on single agenda items by the parliament (inverse) |
| ParlProt | Accessibility and elaborateness of the minutes of parliamentary sessions |
| Transparency of government and courts | |
| kv_publger | Constitutional provisions concerning the public access to judicial proceedings |
| kv_publreg | Constitutional provisions concerning the public access to government sessions |
| Media | |
| Legal frameworks for the media | |
| kv_infodiv | Constitutionally codified public task to promote information diversity |
| kv_zensverb | Constitutional codification of the prohibition of censorship |
| kv_medfoerd | Constitutionally codified public task to promote media access |
| Media diversity | |
| pressdiv | Press diversity: Number of newspapers with self-contained, regular reporting on cantonal politics |
| presscompdist_ex | Degree of press competition within the subcantonal districts |
| Use of the media | |
| Radio | Share of survey respondents who use radio broadcasting for their opinion-making |
| Zeitung | Share of survey respondents who use newspapers for their opinion-making |
| Fernsehen | Share of survey respondents who use television broadcasting for their opinion-making |
| Extra-institutional participation | |
| Constitutional protection of extra-institutional participation | |
| kv_frr_demo | Constitutionally guaranteed freedom to demonstrate |
| kv_frr_pet | Constitutionally guaranteed right to petition |
| kv_frr_stri | Constitutionally guaranteed right to strike |
| kv_frr_assoc | Constitutionally guaranteed freedom of association |
| Participatory culture | |
| Mitglied | Share of survey respondents who are member of at least one political or economic organization |
| Leserbriefe | Share of survey respondents who use letters to the editor for their opinion-making |
| Interesse | Share of survey respondents who state to be very interested in politics |
| Inclusion | |
| Equal political involvement | |
| Universal suffrage | |
| stimmalterakt | Age required for the right to vote and to elect (inverse) |
| passelmin_go_N | Age required for the right to be elected into the cantonal executive (inverse) |
| lady1 | Female suffrage |
| Ausl_StiR | Existence and scope of suffrage for foreign residents |
| Equal use of voting rights | |
| T_Bildung_N | Disproportionality of actual participation rates between groups of different education levels (inverse) |
| T_Qualifikation_N | Disproportionality of actual participation rates between groups of different occupational statuses (invers) |
| turnout_v | Turnout rate in cantonal popular votes |
| T_Geschlecht_N | Disproportionality of actual participation rates between gender groups (inverse) |
| Minimal resources | |
| Social rights | |
| kv_sr_work | Constitutionally guaranteed right to paid work |
| kv_sr_dwell | Constitutionally guaranteed right to housing |
| kv_sr_matmin | Constitutionally guaranteed rights to a minimal amount of material resources, in case of need to be provided by public funds |
| kv_sr_heal | Constitutionally guaranteed rights to the protection and advancement of one’s health |
| Rights to education | |
| kv_sr_edurights | Constitutionally guaranteed right to (adequate) education |
| kv_sr_eduquant | Constitutionally codified public task to provide several educational services |
| kv_sr_eduacc | Constitutionally guaranteed right to an equal and easy access to the educational services |
| kv_sr_edugrat | Constitutionally guaranteed right to education free of charge |
| Inclusive representation | |
| Minority-friendly electoral system | |
| thresho_N | Effective threshold to get a seat in the cantonal parliament (inverse) |
| proporz3reg | Degree of proportionality of the electoral systems for parliamentary and governmental elections |
| parlmand | Number of seats in the cantonal parliament |
| Representation of parties in parliament | |
| rae | Rae index of parliamentary party fractionalization |
| Gallagher_N | Index for the effective disproportionality of the parliamentary electoral system, as proposed by Gallagher (inverse) |
| Voluntary proportional representation | |
| reg_konk | Cumulated vote share (in parliamentary elections) of all parties represented in government |
| kommprop | Average number of seats in parliamentary committees per party |
| Proportional representation of socio-structural groups | Proportional representation by gender |
| Frauenteil_gov | Share of female members in government |
| Frauenteil_parl | Share of female members in parliament |
| Proportional representation by age and profession | |
| Durchschnittsalte | Average age of the members of government and parliament (inverse) |
| disrep_prof_reg_ | Disproportionality of the occupational groups’ representation in government and parliament (inverse) |
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