Skip to content
BY-NC-ND 3.0 license Open Access Published by De Gruyter Open Access July 18, 2014

The Mun Valley and Central Thailand in prehistory: integrating two cultural sequences

  • Charles Franklin Higham EMAIL logo and Fiorella Rispoli
From the journal Open Archaeology

Abstract

This paper compares the later prehistory in two regions of Thailand. The Mun Valley lies on the eastern side of the Phetchabun Range, the Lopburi Region (LR) to the west. They are linked by a major pass. While the Lopburi area is rich in copper ore, the Mun Valley has none. Quality salt is abundantly available in the Mun Valley but less so in the LR. This study explores the inter-relationships between the areas over a period of 2300 years which sharpens our understanding of both, and presents explanations and possibilities in the context of cultural transmission theories. Neolithic farmers with ultimate origins in China, arrived in the first half of the second millennium BC. Widespread exchange in prestige goods was a factor in the adoption of copper-base metallurgy in the late 11th century BC, when the LR became a producer, the Mun Valley an importer. With the Iron Age, (from about 500 BC), sites grew in size. During the course of this period, gold, silver, agate, carnelian and glass ornaments were ritually placed with dead elites. It is in these powerful and wealthy Iron Age communities that we can identify the early transition into states with population growth, agricultural intensification, conflict and increased production and competition over salt and metal for exchange.

References

[1] Rispoli, F., Ciarla, R., Pigott, V.C., Establishing the prehistoric cultural sequence for the Lopburi region, Central Thailand, Journal of World Prehistory., 2013, 26(2), 101-171 10.1007/s10963-013-9064-7Search in Google Scholar

[2] Higham C.F.W., Thosarat, R. (Eds.), The origins of the civilization of Angkor. Volume 1. The excavation of Ban Lum Khao., Bangkok: The Fine Arts Department of Thailand, http://www.oxbowbooks.com/oxbow/catalogsearch/ result/?q=9781782977964, 2005 Search in Google Scholar

[3] Higham C.F.W., Kijngam, A., Talbot, S. (Eds.), The origins of the civilization of Angkor. Volume II. The excavation Noen U-Loke and Non Muang Kao., Bangkok: The Fine Arts Department of Thailand, http://www.oxbowbooks.com/oxbow/ the-origins-of-the-civilization-of-angkor-volume-2-44287.html, 2007 Search in Google Scholar

[4] Higham C.F.W., Kijngam, A. (Eds.), The origins of the civilization of Angkor. Volume III. The excavation Ban Non Wat: Introduction., Bangkok: The Fine Arts Department of Thailand, http://www.oxbowbooks.com/oxbow/the-origins-of-thecivilisation- of-angkor-volume-3-44288.html, 2009 Search in Google Scholar

[5] Higham C.F.W., Kijngam, A. (Eds.), The origins of the civilization of Angkor. Volume IV. The excavation Ban Non Wat: The Neolithic occupation, Bangkok: The Fine Arts Department of Thailand, http://www.oxbowbooks.com/oxbow/the-originsof- the-civilization-of-angkor-volume-4-44289.html, 2011 Search in Google Scholar

[6] Higham C.F.W., Kijngam, A. (Eds.), The origins of the civilization of Angkor. Volume V. The excavation Ban Non Wat: the Bronze Age., Bangkok: The Fine Arts Department of Thailand, http://www.oxbowbooks.com/oxbow/the-origins-of-thecivilization- of-angkor-volume-44290.html, 2012 Search in Google Scholar

[7] Higham C.F.W., Kijngam, A. (Eds.), The origins of the civilization of Angkor. Volume VI. The excavation Ban Non Wat: the Iron Age., Bangkok: The Fine Arts Department of Thailand, http://www.oxbowbooks.com/oxbow/the-origins-of-thecivilization- of-angkor-volume-44291.html, 2012 Search in Google Scholar

[8] Mills, B.J., Colonialism and cuisine. Cultural transmission, agency and history at Zuni pueblo. In: Stark, M.T., Bowser, B.J., Horne, L. (Eds.), Cultural transmission and material culture. Breaking down boundaries., Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2008, 245-262 Search in Google Scholar

[9] Gosselain, O.P., Social and technical identity in a clay crystal ball, In: Stark, M.T. (Ed.), The archaeology of social boundaries., Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1998 Search in Google Scholar

[10] Dietler, M., Herbich, I., Habitus, techniques, style: an integrated approach to social understanding of material culture and boundaries, In: Stark, M.T. (Ed.), The archaeology of social boundaries., Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1998 Search in Google Scholar

[11] Wallaert, H., The way of the potter’s mother. Apprenticeship strategies among Dii potters from Cameroon, West Africa, In: Stark, M.T., Bowser, M.T. (Eds.), Cultural transmission and material culture. Breaking down boundaries., Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2008 Search in Google Scholar

[12] Olausson, D.J., Does practice make perfect? Craft expertise as a factor in aggrandizer strategies., Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 2008, 15, 28-50 10.1007/s10816-007-9049-xSearch in Google Scholar

[13] Fine Arts Department of Thailand, Archaeological sites in Thailand, Vols. 1 and 2, Bangkok: Archaeological Division Publication No. 6, Thai Fine Arts Department, 1988 Search in Google Scholar

[14] Williams-Hunt, P., Irregular earthworks in Eastern Siam: an air survey., Antiquity, 1950, 24, 30-37 10.1017/S0003598X00022821Search in Google Scholar

[15] Cremaschi M., Ciarla, R., Pigott, V.C., Palaeoenvironment and late prehistoric sites in Central Thailand, In: Glover, I. (Ed.), Southeast Asian Archaeology 1990., Hull: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, University of Hull, 1992 Search in Google Scholar

[16] Ciarla, R., A Preliminary Report on Lo.R.A.P. archaeological excavations at prehistoric Khao Sai On, Lopburi Province, Central Thailand., East and West, 2007, 57 (1-4), 395-401 Search in Google Scholar

[17] Ciarla, R., The Thai-Italian Lopburi regional archaeological project excavation at Khao Sai On-Noen Din. Preliminary Report., East and West, 2008, 58 (1-4), 313-336 Search in Google Scholar

[18] Natapintu, S., The contribution of archaeology to the improvement of life quality at Ban Pong Manao village, Lopburi Province, Central Thailand In: I. Piovano, I. (Ed.), La cultura Thailandese e le relazioni Italo–Thai., Torino: Centro Studi Medio ed Estremo Oriente, 2005 Search in Google Scholar

[19] Ciarla R., The Thai-Italian archaeological project: preliminary results, In: Glover, I.C. (Ed.), Southeast Asian archaeology 1990., Hull: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, Hull, 1992 Search in Google Scholar

[20] Ciarla, R. Lopburi regional archaeological project. In: Ministero degli Affari Esteri (Ed.), Missioni archeologiche Italiane. La ricerca archeologica, antropologica, etnologica., Roma: Ministero Affari Esteri, 1998 Search in Google Scholar

[21] Rispoli, F., Preliminary report on the pottery from the 1989 excavation season at Tha Kae, Op. 1 Square A’, In: Glover, I.C., Proceedings of the 3rd ASEAAWE Conference., Hull: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, University of Hull, 1992 Search in Google Scholar

[22] Rispoli, F. Late-third/early second millennium BC pottery traditions in Central Thailand: some preliminary observations in a wider perspective, In: Ciarla, R., Rispoli, F. (Eds.), South-East Asian Archaeology 1992. Proceedings of the fourth international conference of the European Association of South-East Asian Archaeologists Rome., Serie Orientale Roma, Vol. 77, Istituto Italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente, 1997 Search in Google Scholar

[23] Rispoli, F., Ad occidente è l’India. Alla ricerca delle radici del processo di indianizzazione nella Thailandia Centrale., Ph.D. thesis, Istituto Universitario Orientale, Naples, 1997, (in Italian) Search in Google Scholar

[24] Rispoli, F., I levigatoi/skin rubbers della Valle del Chao Phraya (Thailandia Centrale), In: Fontana, M.V., Genito, B. (Eds.), Studi in onore di Umberto Scerrato per il suo settantacinquesimo compleanno., Naples: Istituto Universitario Orientale, 2004 Search in Google Scholar

[25] Rispoli, F., To the west and India, In: Callieri, P., Filigenzi, A. (Eds.), Studi onore di Maurizio Taddei., East and West, 2005, 55, 243-264 Search in Google Scholar

[26] Rispoli, F., Terracotta ear-studs and skin-rubbers: looking for the roots of Indianization in Central Thailand, In: Piovano, I. (Ed.), Cultura Thailandese e le relazioni Italo-Thai., Torino: Centro Studi Medio Estremo Oriente (CESMEO), 2005 Search in Google Scholar

[27] Rispoli, F., Ciarla, R., Natapintu, S. The archaeological project and its implications, In: Italian Embassy and Silpakorn University, (Ed.), First international conference on Italian-Thai studies: from the late nineteenth century to the present., Bangkok: National Museum, 1997 Search in Google Scholar

[28] Pigott, V.C., Weiss, A.D., Natapintu, S., The archaeology of copper production: excavations in the Khao Wong Prachan Valley, Central Thailand, In: Ciarla R., Rispoli, F. (Eds.), South-East Asian archaeology 1992., Proceedings of the fourth international conference of the European Association of South-East Asian Archaeologists, Rome: Serie Orientale Roma., Vol. 77, Istituto Italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente, 1997 Search in Google Scholar

[29] Pigott, V.C., Prehistoric copper mining in the context of emerging community craft specialisation in northeast Thailand, In: Knapp, A.B., Pigott, V.C., Herbert, E.W. (Eds.), Social approaches to an industrial past: The archaeology and anthropology of mining., London: Routledge, 1998 Search in Google Scholar

[30] Pigott, V.C., Reconstructing the copper production process as practiced among prehistoric mining/metallurgical communities in the Khao Wong Prachan Valley of central Thailand., In: Young, S.M., Pollard, M., Budd, P, Ixer, R. (Eds.), Metals in antiquity., Oxford: British Archaeological Report (International Series) 792, 1999 Search in Google Scholar

[31] Pigott, V.C., Ciarla, R., On the origins of metallurgy in prehistoric Southeast Asia: the view from Thailand, In: La Niece, S., Hook, D., Craddock, P. (Eds.), Metals and mines., Studies in archaeometallurgy, London: British Museum, 2007 Search in Google Scholar

[32] Ho, C.M.W., The pottery of Kok Charoen and its farther context., Ph.D. thesis, University of London, London, 1984 Search in Google Scholar

[33] Loof-Wissowa, H.H.E., Hill of prosperity: state-of-the art of the publication of Khok Charoen site, Lopburi Province, Thailand., Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, 1997, 16, 199-211 10.7152/bippa.v16i0.12982Search in Google Scholar

[34] Watson, W., Khok Charoen and the early metal age of Central Thailand, In: Smith, R.B. and Watson, W. (Eds.), Early Southeast Asia., New York: Oxford University Press, 1979 Search in Google Scholar

[35] Watson, W., Loof-Wissowa, H.H.E., The Thai-British archaeological expedition: a preliminary report on the work of the first season., Journal of the Siam Society, 1967, 55, 237-262 Search in Google Scholar

[36] Malaipan, V. The excavation at Sab Champa, In: Smith, R.B., Watson, W. (Eds.), Early South East Asia., Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979 Search in Google Scholar

[37] Veeraprasert, M.S. Etude archéologique sur le site de Sab Champa., M.A. thesis, Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle, Paris, 1981-82, (in French) Search in Google Scholar

[38] Natapintu, S., Current archaeological research in Central Thailand with special reference to the site of Phu Noi, Lopburi Province, In: Ciarla, R., Rispoli, F. (Eds.), South-East Asian Archaeology 1992. Proceedings of the fourth international conference of the European Association of South-East Asian Archaeologists., Rome: Serie Orientale Roma, Vol. 77, Istituto Italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente, 1997 Search in Google Scholar

[39] Ciarla, R., The Thai-Italian al archaeological project: a survey of fifteen years of activities, In: Piovano, I. (Ed.), La cultura thailandese e le relazioni Italo-Thai., Torino: Centro Studi Medio ed Estremo Oriente, 2005 Search in Google Scholar

[40] Onsuwan Eyre, C., Excavation of Ban Mai Chaimongkol, Nakhon Sawan Province, Central Thailand: A study of site stratigraphy, chronology and its implications for the prehistory of Central Thailand., MA thesis, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 2000 Search in Google Scholar

[41] Onsuwan Eyre, C., Prehistoric and proto-historic communities in the Eastern Upper Chao Phraya River valley, Thailand: analysis of site chronology, settlement pattern and land use., PhD thesis, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 2006 Search in Google Scholar

[42] Higham, C.F.W., Higham, T.F.G., A new chronological framework for prehistoric Southeast Asia, based on a Bayesian model from Ban Non Wat., Antiquity, 2009, 82, 125-144 10.1017/S0003598X00098136Search in Google Scholar

[43] Higham, C.F.W., The Iron Age of the Mun Valley, Thailand., The Antiquaries Journal, 2011, 91, 101-144 10.1017/S0003581511000114Search in Google Scholar

[44] Higham, C.F.W., the adult male burials and other adults of Iron Age period 1, northern group. In: Higham, C.F.W., Kijngam, A. (Eds.), The origins of civilization of Angkor. Vol. VI. The excavation of Ban Non Wat Part Four: The Iron Age, summary and conclusions., Bangkok; The Thai Fine Arts Department of Thailand, 2012 Search in Google Scholar

[45] King, C.L., Bentley, R.A., Higham, C.F.W., Tayles, N., Viðarsdóttir, U.S., Layton, R., et al., Economic change after the agricultural revolution in Southeast Asia?, Antiquity, 2014, 88, 112-125 10.1017/S0003598X00050250Search in Google Scholar

[46] Sørensen, P., Hatting, T., Archaeological investigations in Thailand: The archaeological materials from the burials., Copenhagen: Munksgard, 1967 Search in Google Scholar

[47] Fuller, D.Q., Sato Y-I., Castillo, C., Qin, L., Weisskopf, A.R., Kingwell-Banham, E.J. et al., Consilience of genetics and archaeobotany in the entagled history of rice., Archaeological and Anthropological Science, 2010, 2, 115-31 10.1007/s12520-010-0035-ySearch in Google Scholar

[48] Rispoli, F., The incised and impressed pottery of mainland Southeast Asia: following the paths of Neolithization., East and West, 2007, 57, 235-304 Search in Google Scholar

[49] Zhang, C. and Hung, H-C., The emergence of agriculture in southern China., Antiquity, 2010, 84, 11-25 10.1017/S0003598X00099737Search in Google Scholar

[50] Higham, C.F.W., Wiriyaromp, W. Neolithic phase 1, In: Higham, C.F.W., Kijngam, A. (Eds.), The origins of the civilization of Angkor. Volume IV. The 0xcavation Ban Non Wat: the Neolithic occupation., Bangkok: The Fine Arts Department of Thailand, 2010 Search in Google Scholar

[51] Higham, C.F.W., Wiriyaromp, W. Neolithic ceramic motifs, In: Higham, C.F.W., Kijngam, A. (Eds.), The origins of the civilization of Angkor. Volume IV. The Excavation Ban Non Wat: the Neolithic occupation., Bangkok: The Fine Arts Department of Thailand, 2010 Search in Google Scholar

[52] Weber, S., Lehman, H., Barela, T., Hawks, S., Harriman, D., Rice or millets: early farming strategies in prehistoric central Thailand. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences., 2010, 72 (2), 79-88 10.1007/s12520-010-0030-3Search in Google Scholar

[53] Eerkens, J.W. and Lipo, C.P., Cultural transmission, copying errors, and the generation of variation in material culture and the archaeological record., Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 2005, 24, 316–334 10.1016/j.jaa.2005.08.001Search in Google Scholar

[54] Hodder, I., Entangled. An archaeology of the relationships between humans and things., Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012 10.1002/9781118241912Search in Google Scholar

[55] Calder, A.M., Cracked pots and rubbish tips: An ethnoarchaeological investigation of vessel and sherd distribution in a Thai-Lao village., MA thesis, Otago University, New Zealand, 1972 Search in Google Scholar

[56] Bentley, A., Shennan, S.J., Cultural transmission and stochastic network growth., American Antiquity, 2003, 68, 459-485 10.2307/3557104Search in Google Scholar

[57] Shinoda, K. Mitochondrial DNA of human remains at Man Bac. In: Oxenham, M., Matsumura, H., Nguyen, D.K. (Eds.), Man Bac. The Excavation of a Neolithic Site in Northern Vietnam. The Biology., Terra Australis, 2010, 33, 95-116 10.22459/TA33.05.2011.08Search in Google Scholar

[58] Buckley, C.D., Investigating cultural evolution using phylogenetic analysis: the origins and descent of the Southeast Asian tradition of warp ikat weaving., PLoS ONE, 2012, 7(12): e52064. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052064 10.1371/journal.pone.0052064Search in Google Scholar

[59] Higham, C.F.W., The Bronze Age of Southeast Asia: new insight on social change from Ban Non Wat., Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 2011, 21(3), 365-389 10.1017/S0959774311000424Search in Google Scholar

[60] Pigott, V.C., Natapintu, S., Archaeological investigations into prehistoric copper production: the Thailand Archaeometallurgy Project 1984–1986, In: Maddin, R. (Ed.), The beginning of the use of metals and alloys., Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1988 Search in Google Scholar

[61] Ciarla, R., Rethinking Yuanlongpo: the case for technological links between the Lingnan (PRC) and Central Thailand in the Bronze Age., East and West, 2007, 57 (1-4), 305-328 Search in Google Scholar

[62] Eerkens, J.W., Lipo, C.P., 2007. Cultural transmission theory and the archaeological record: providing context to understanding variation and temporal changes in material culture., Journal of Archaeological Research, 2007, 15, 239-274 10.1007/s10814-007-9013-zSearch in Google Scholar

[63] Ferguson, J.R. The when, where and how of novices in craft production., Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 2008, 15, 51-67 10.1007/s10816-007-9047-zSearch in Google Scholar

[64] Pryce, T.O., Brauns, M., Chang, N., Pernicka, E., Pollard, M., Ramsey, C. et al., Isotopic and technological variation in prehistoric Southeast Asian primary copper production., Journal of Archaeological Science 2011, 38, 3309-3322 10.1016/j.jas.2011.07.016Search in Google Scholar

[65] Cawte, H. The copper base industry., In: Higham C.F.W., Kijngam, A. (Eds.), The 0rigins of civilization of Angkor. Vol. V. The excavation of Ban Non Wat Part Three: The BronzeAge, Bangkok: The Thai Fine Arts Department of Thailand, 2012 Search in Google Scholar

[66] Higham, C.F.W., Recasting Thailand. New discoveries at Ban Non Wat., Current World Archaeology, 2008, 31, 38-41 Search in Google Scholar

[67] Negri, M.P. An experimental mapping method by means of fossil mollusk faunas: The Holocene Thai paleogulf., Bollettino della Società Paleontologica Italiana, 2009, 48 (1), 41-50 Search in Google Scholar

[68] Natapintu, S., Current research on ancient copper-base metallurgy in Thailand, In: Charoenwongsa, P., Bronson, B. (Eds.), Prehistoric Studies: Stone and Metal Ages in Thailand., Bangkok: Thai Antiquity Working Group, 1988 Search in Google Scholar

[69] Pigott, V.C., Natapintu, S., Excavations at Non Mak La, Lopburi Province, Central Thailand, Ms. on file Internal Report submitted to the Thai Fine Arts Department on Fieldwork conducted in 1994 by the Thailand Archaeometallurgy Project, Philadelphia, 1997 Search in Google Scholar

[70] Ciarla, R., Interazioni culturali e tecnologiche tra Cina meridionale e Sudest asiatico coninentale tra la fine del II millennio a. C. e l’inizio del I millennio a C.: la dispersione meridionale della tecnologia del rame/bronzo., PhD thesis Universita Ca’ Foscari, Venezia, 2013, (in Italian) Search in Google Scholar

[71] Higham C.F.W., Ciarla, R, Higham, T.F.G., Kijngam, A., Rispoli, F. The establishment of the Bronze Age in Southeast Asia., Journal of World Prehistory, 2011, 24(4), 227-274 10.1007/s10963-011-9054-6Search in Google Scholar

[72] Vincent, B.A., Prehistoric Ceramics of Northeast Thailand., Oxford, British Archaeological Reports (International Series), 461, 1988 Search in Google Scholar

[73] Vincent, B.A., Khok Phanom Di: The pottery., London, Research Report of the Society of Antiquaries of London LXX, 2004 Search in Google Scholar

[74] Bellina B., Cultural exchange between India and Southeast Asia. Production and distribution of hard stone ornaments (VI c. BC– VI c. AD)., Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, with the participation of l’Ecole Française d’Extrême- Orient and Epistèmes, Paris, 2007 Search in Google Scholar

[75] Roux, V., David, E., Planning abilities as a dynamic perceptual-motor skill: An actualist study of different levels of expertise involved in stone knapping. In: Roux, V., Bril, B. (Eds.), Stone knapping: The necessary conditions for a uniquely hominin behaviour., Cambridge: McDonald Institute, 2005 Search in Google Scholar

[76] Bellina, B., Silapanth, P., Chaisuwan, B., Thongcharoenchaikit, C., Allen, J., Bernard, V. et al., The development of coastal polities in the upper Thai Malay Peninsula, In: Revire, N., Murphy, S.A. (Eds.), Before Siam was born., Bangkok: River Books, 2014 Search in Google Scholar

[77] O’Reilly, D.J.W., The discovery of clay-lined floors at an Iron Age site in Thailand – preliminary observations from Non Muang Kao, Nakhon Ratchasima Province., Journal of the Siam Society, 1997, 85, 133-150 Search in Google Scholar

[78] Cameron, J., The spinning tools, In: Higham C.F.W., Kijngam, A. (Eds.), The origins of civilization of Angkor. Vol. VI. The excavation of Ban Non Wat, Part Four: The Iron Age, summary and conclusions., Bangkok: The Thai Fine Arts Department of Thailand, 2012 Search in Google Scholar

[79] Chetwin, J. N., The remains of wattle and daub structures, In: Higham C.F.W., Kijngam, A., Talbot S. (Eds.), The origins of civilization of Angkor. Vol. II. The excavation of Noen U-Loke and Non Muang Kao., Bangkok: The Thai Fine Arts Department of Thailand, 2007 Search in Google Scholar

[80] Iseppy, A. The Iron Age occupation in layer 3, In: Higham, C.F.W., Kijngam, A. (Eds.), The origins of the civilization of Angkor. Volume VI. The excavation Ban Non Wat: the Iron Age., Bangkok, The Fine Arts Department of Thailand, 2012 Search in Google Scholar

[81] McGrath, R.J., Boyd, W.E. The chronology of the Iron Age ‘moats’ of northeast Thailand., Antiquity, 2001, 75, 349-360 10.1017/S0003598X00061007Search in Google Scholar

[82] Rivett, P., Higham, C.F.W., The archaeology of salt production, In: Higham, C.F.W., Kijngam, A., Talbot S. (Eds.), The origins of civilization of Angkor. Vol. II. The excavation of Noen U-Loke and Non Muang Kao., Bangkok: The Thai Fine Arts Department of Thailand, 2007 Search in Google Scholar

[83] Pigott, V.C., Mudar, K.M., Agelarakis, A., Kealhofer, L., Weber, S.A., Voelker, J.C., A program of analysis of organic remains from prehistoric copper-producing settlements in the Khao Wong Prachan Valley, Central Thailand: a progress report, In: Bacus, E.A., Glover, I.C., Pigott V.C. (Eds.), Uncovering Southeast Asia’s past: Selected papers from the 10th international conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists., Singapore: National University of Singapore Press, 2006 Search in Google Scholar

[84] Pigott, V.C., Reconstructing the copper production process as practiced among prehistoric mining/metallurgical communities in the Khao Wong Prachan Valley of central Thailand, In: Young, S.M., Pollard, M., Budd, P,, Ixer, R. (Eds.), Metals in antiquity., Oxford: British Archaeological Report (International Series) 792, 1999 Search in Google Scholar

[85] Cameron, J., Iron and cloth across the Bay of Bengal: new data from Tha Kae, central Thailand., Antiquity, 2011, 85, 559-567 10.1017/S0003598X00067946Search in Google Scholar

[86] Natapintu, S., personal communication. Search in Google Scholar

[87] Higham, C.F.W., The material culture, In: Higham, C.F.W., Kijngam, A. (Eds.), The origins of civilization of Angkor. Vol. III. The excavation of Ban Non Wat. Part I: introduction., Bangkok: the Thai Fine Arts Department, 2009 Search in Google Scholar

[88] Connelly, R., The iron and bimetallic artefacts, In: Higham C.F.W., Kijngam, A., Talbot S. (Eds.), The 0rigins of civilization of Angkor. Vol. II. The excavation of Noen U-Loke and Non Muang Kao., Bangkok: The Thai Fine Arts Department of Thailand, 2007 Search in Google Scholar

[89] Brown, R.L., The Dvaravati wheels of the law and the Indianisation of Southeast Asia., Studies in Asian Art and Archaeology, 1995, 18, New York: E.J. Brill Search in Google Scholar

[90] Cox, K., Bentley, R.A., Tayles, N.G., Buckley, H.R., MacPherson, C.G., Cooper, M.J., Intrinsic or extrinsic population growth in Iron Age Northeast Thailand? The evidence from isotopic analysis., Journal of Archaeological Science, 2011, 38, 665-681 10.1016/j.jas.2010.10.018Search in Google Scholar

[91] Higham, C.F.W., Thosarat, R., The excavation of Khok Phanom Di: Volume VII. Summary and Conclusions., London: The Society of Antiquaries of London, 2004 Search in Google Scholar

Published Online: 2014-7-18

© 2014 C.F.W. Higham and F. Rispoli

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 License.

Downloaded on 19.3.2024 from https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.2478/opar-2014-0002/html
Scroll to top button