SOME COMMENTS ON MICAH BERDICHEVSKY’S SAUL AND PAUL

Although Micah Berdichevsky (1865–1921), a giant of Hebrew literature, never completed his book-length study of the apostle , his literary executors ensured that Saul and Paul was published in 1971. Like the better known study by Joseph Klausner, Paul (1939), Berdichevsky’s work was a Zionist perspective on the founder of Gentile Christianity, written in Hebrew. Central to Saul and Paul is a mysterious document that Berdichevsky believed to be an ancient Jewish account of the conversion and missionary success of Paul, namely, the tale of the pagan priest, Abba Gulish. He went on to argue that Saul and Paul had been two different individuals, the one Jewish, the other pagan, and that Christian tradition had amalgamated them. Attributing historicity to a Hebrew legend rather than a Greek Christian one, Berdichevsky argued that Paulinism of Christianity in the Jewish Paul’s adoption of non-Jewish, Hellenistic ideas, Berdichevsky went one step further and denied Paul even a Jewish birth. In addition to a comparison of Klausner and Berdichevsky’s views of Paul, this short article includes the Hebrew text and translation of the story of

tradition of Jewish historical consideration of Christian origins that goes back to the Wissenschaft des Judenthums (the historical study of Judaism), of which the best known example is Susannah Heschel's Abraham Geiger and the Jewish Jesus (1998). 2 In order to understand just how radical an interpretation of Paul is offered by Berdichevsky, let us begin with a short overview of the interpretation offered by Joseph Klausner (1874Klausner ( -1956, the Jewish historian and prominent Zionist whose approach to Paul was also profoundly shaped by his nationalist ideology. 3 Born near Vilna, Lithuania, Klausner studied in 1897. Following the Bolshevik Revolution (October 1917) he emigrated from Odessa, Russia, to Palestine. From 1925 he taught Modern Hebrew Literature and the History of the Second Temple Period at the Hebrew University. He became increasingly nationalist in his views and was regarded as the ideologue of the Revisionist Party, which from the 1920s and 30s was the principal [2]opposition to Weizmann's leadership. Not Orthodox, Klausner Eretz Yisrael at that time. 4 His historical writings on Jesus and Christian beginnings were amongst the earliest comprehensive treatments in Hebrew; in addition to Jesus of Nazareth (1922) he wrote From Jesus to Paul (1939). 5 Jews for Jewish history or, more precisely, to utilize them in the Zionist project to construct a strong nationalist identity. This involved contrasting Jewish and Christian worldviews, as Klausner made clear in his conclusion.
My deepest conviction is this: Judaism will never become reconciled with Christianity (in the sense of spiritual [religious and intellectual] compromise), nor will it be assimilated by Christianity; for Judaism and Christianity are not only two different religions, but they were also two different worldviews. Judaism will never allow itself to reach even in theory the ethical extremeness characteristic Apostle Paul: Pauline Studies as an Intra-Jewish Ideological Battleground', Journal for the Study of the New Testament 28/2 (2005), 223-226. 4 Kling argued that, in matters of religion, Klausner was not an Orthodox Jew, and many of his friends were secular Zionists, although he himself was observant of tradition. Simcha Kling, Joseph Klausner (Cranbury, NJ: Thomas Yoseloff, 1970 of Christianity; this extremeness has no place in the world of reality, and therefore is likely in actual fact to be converted into its direct opposite -into brutality such as has been seen in the Middle Ages and in our own time in any number of 'Christian' countries. 6 The Zionist concern with the differences between Jewish and non-Jewish worldviews provides the key to Klausner's understanding of Paul. The apostle's background had been one of Hellenistic Judaism and paganism. Far from Eretz Yisrael, Paul had been 'detached from authentic, living Judaism, which was rooted in its own soil'. 7 This accounted for his message, 'a whole new doctrine which was not Judaism, [but] which was in fact anti-Judaism, the complete antithesis of Judaism'. 8 dying and rising gods. 9 But Klausner was drawn to Paul for more than simply the opportunity to hold him up as a representative of a hostile Christian religion or non-Jewish worldview. At history, to recognize even in the apostle to the Gentiles the genius and power of authentic Judaism. Klausner was appreciative of certain of Paul's 'lofty and beautiful' teachings, 10 and the oral law) had helped protect Judaism down through the centuries. 11 In attempting to have his cake and eat it, Klausner explained: Intensive research over many years has brought the writer of the present book to a deep conviction that there is nothing in the teaching of Paul -not even the most mystical elements in it -that did not come to him from authentic Judaism. For all theories and hypotheses that Paul drew his opinions directly from the Greek philosophical literature or the mystery religions of his time have Judaism received unconsciously at his hands a non-Jewish coloring Jewish and pagan atmosphere with which Paul of Tarsus was surrounded during nearly all of his life, except for the few years which he spent in Jerusalem. . . 12 Klausner was prepared to accept that Paul had probably studied for a while under Gamaliel in Jerusalem, his Pharisaic training evidenced by his use of scripture. 13 While there, he had possibly met Jesus and had [3]come to vigorously oppose him. 14 A combination of Jesus' on a very different path, his guilt in opposing Jesus only being relieved by his devotion to the risen Christ. 15 Thereafter, Paul had devoted himself to the Gentiles, adopting a Realpolitik approach which Klausner recognized as making possible the success of Christianity, the contradictions he had introduced being both inevitable and necessary for that success. 16 The apostle's talent for adaptability ('a thorough-going opportunist . . . a clever politician') had allowed Paul to appeal to the Gentiles by teaching of the Jewish messiah without reference to Jewish nationality. 17 In that he believed that Jesus' teaching would not have won over the non-Jewish world, Klausner regarded Christianity as the creation of Paul, 'who was much more denationalized and divided in soul than was Jesus -the latter being a Jew of Palestine only, 18 At the same time, he accepted that, as far as Paul was concerned, his negation of the importance of Israel's Torah that he had taught and preached had not cut him off from the people of Israel. 19 Klausner's use of Paul as an object lesson, illustrating the opposing worldviews of Judaism and Christianity, was fundamentally a Zionist critique. Paul's inauthenticity was, he claimed, rooted in his lack of intimacy with the Land. His creation of a world religion was made possible only by de-nationalizing Judaism, something that neither the prophets nor Jesus had sought to do. All the same, one is left in no doubt that any positive assessment of his The unresolved tension accounts in part for Klausner's somewhat confusing claim that Paul's new religion was 'Judaism and non-Judaism at the same time'. 20 Klausner's historical study is undoubtedly the best known Jewish nationalist critique of the co-founder of Christianity. Far fewer will have heard of the study of Paul by Micah Joseph Berdichevsky  or Mikha Yosef Bin-Gorion as he preferred to call himself. 21 While both men clearly expressed a political agenda through their readings of Paul, seeking to create a myth of Christianity for a Jewish audience, they did so in very different ways. In contrast to the studies by Klausner, who engaged with the wider historical scholarship of the day, Berdichevsky's work was very much the product of an individual novelist, journalist and folklorist, rather than an historian per se, with little interest paid to the researches of others, and with a much freer reign granted to his imagination.
Born into a hasidic rabbinic family in Ukrainian Medzibezh, Berdichevsky's traditional yeshivah education was undermined by his surreptitious reading of Haskalah works. These writings of the Jewish Enlightenment eventually resulted in rebellion and a life-long literary obsession with the inner turmoil of those individuals torn between modern ideas and traditional ways of life and thought. After leaving Russia he studied in both Switzerland and Germany, where he settled; his compositions in Yiddish, German and Hebrew included articles and stories, collections of Hebrew myths, and analyses of the origins of Judaism with particular emphasis on the Samaritans. He has been described as one of the founding fathers of secular Jewish nationalism, not least because his compilations of Jewish legends championed a nationalistic, worldly alternative to the religiously normative view of Jewish history. 22 But [4]it is for his scholarly writings on Christianity that this giant of modern Hebrew literature is of interest here. In addition to the posthumous Jesus Son of Hanan 17 Klausner,From Jesus to Paul,312,431,446. 18 Klausner,From Jesus to Paul,590. 19 Klausner,From Jesus to Paul, Klausner,From Jesus to Paul,465. 21 For both names there are many alternative spellings. Note that while 'Berdichevsky' is used in the text above, the relevant alternative will be given when citing works published under a different name. (1959) 23 mentioned in Josephus and with the Actian character of the martyr Stephen -Berdichevsky also wrote the equally incendiary Saul and Paul (1971). Both were probably originally written in Berlin, shortly before the author's death. 24 Shaul ve-Paul represents one of the most striking interpretations of the apostle to the Gentiles offered by any Jewish author, and one which ran entirely contrary to the traditional Christian account of the Jewish Saul who converted to become the Christian Paul and apostle to the Gentiles. The main idea appears to have been that Saul and Paul were two different individuals whose distinct traditions had been amalgamated by the early Christians the earliest version of Paul's blinding and conversion as the mysterious Hebrew legend of Abba Gulish, a non-Jewish pagan priest who converted to Judaism and spread his teaching among the Gentiles of the Hellenistic world. Later, Berdichevsky suggested, the Gentile Jewish elements of Christian thought.
As an uprooted, marginal thinker, capable of embracing logically contradictory positions and emotions, the nature of Berdichevsky's manuscript does not make for easy analysis. 25 To make matters worse, he failed to complete his study of Paul and it was left to his literary executors to collate the material and publish it in fragmented form. 26   Paul's conversion, offers a commentary on a number of episodes in the book of Acts such as Paul's visits to Athens and Ephesus, and considers such themes as the distinction in Christian tradition between the killed hero ( Jesus) and the escaped hero (Paul). The second part, which was entitled Diverse Chapters, includes standalone studies of various Pauline topics such as the purpose of Paul's visit to Jerusalem, speeches in Paul's defence, and his views on baptism. It begins with a short introductory piece in which Berdichevsky [5]offers a critical reading of Acts. The third part, which is entitled Notes, is a set of jottings from his work journal which includes possible alternative versions. Berdichevsky had to both write another section that devoted to the epistles attributed to Paul and demonstrating that 'Pauline' polemic had been directed again the Samaritans (this being a favourite subject in Berdichevsky's researches).
In terms of sources for the life of Paul, Berdichevsky's interest in the New Testament is limited. His use of Acts is focused primarily upon passages where the apostle is involved in mission to the Gentiles and where he confronts Hellenistic worship and ritual. He is also suspicious of the epistles, which are regarded merely as literary forms expressing the views 27 Nevertheless, he accepts that the New Testament does offer evidence of a Jew called Saul, about which little is actually known, who was also mentioned 13:2-3, where he is said to have been chosen by the Holy Spirit; 28 Christian tradition held that he had received his divine calling from the risen Jesus. 29 The same character could also be found in Jewish literature. To learn more about Paul, one should rather turn to the tale of Abba Gulish. This apocryphal story is valued very highly by Berdichevsky because he believes it to be derived from a Hebrew tradition that was ancient enough to be taken seriously as an alternative to the New Testament account(s) of Paul. Although the legend was discovered in a medieval manuscript, he emphasises that it is 'written in the Hebrew of the [6]Mishnaic and Talmudic period', that is, it possesses an ancient pedigree. 33 Since it was not to be found in the talmudic literature, he is also hopeful that it was relatively free from religious bias. 34 In the story of Abba Gulish we have a Hebrew text about Saul-Paul and his path to the faith . . . But it is no secondary [or derivative] text of Paul's conversion as presented in Acts of the Apostles. The story of Abba Gulish needs to be seen as a relic from an earlier time . . . [A] picture emerges which is nearer the historical background than that presented in Acts. 35 This story tells of a pagan priest called Abba Gulish who served as a priest in 'an idolatrous temple' in Damascus and who used to pilfer the donations. Habitually calling upon his idol for healing and receiving none, he one day called upon 'the Sovereign of the Universe' who promptly cured him. Moving to Tiberias he converted to Judaism where 'he ran after the mitzvot [commandments]' and began a new life as an administrator for the poor. Eventually he was overcome by temptation and began embezzling money again -with the consequence that he went blind. Returning to Damascus, he stood before the Gentiles (who believed that he had lost his sight because he had scorned the idol) and delivered a public speech. Pointing out that in all the time he had stolen from the temple donations the idol had never punished him, he went on to confess that he had resumed his criminal activities in Tiberias until struck down. He therefore attributed his condition not to the idol but to the One 'whose eyes roam the whole world and no misdeed is beyond Him to see [and punish]', whereupon, having witnessed to God's power and judgement, his sight was miraculously restored. And 'from the nations thousands and tens of thousands . . . [found] shelter under the wings of the shekhinah', that is, converted to Judaism. 36 According to Christian tradition Paul had been a Jewish convert to Christianity, while Abba Gulish was a pagan who converted to Judaism. What, then, made Berdichevsky think that Abba Gulish and Paul were one and the same person? His evidence was a string of 33 The story was included in a collection of aggadot in Moses Gaster, Sefer hama'asiyot ('The Book of Tales', Ramsgate: 1896), republished as Sefer hama'asiyot: The Exempla of the Rabbis (London: 1924), which Gaster had printed from a manuscript which he had dated variously from the ninth-to the thirteenth-centuries. Berdichevsky was delighted to discover that the story was also to be found in the Midrash ha-Gadol (published as David Hoffman, Great Midrash: Exodus which apparently drew upon a lost source that included the tale of Abba Gulish and whose text is identical to that of the Sefer hama'asiyot (except for its attribution). M.Y. Bin Gorion, Shaul ve-Paul, 11, 13, 15-16. 34 Berdichevsky explains his rationale: 'It will not be surprising to say that Rabbinical texts, written in the Holy Scriptures due to dogmatic or historical tendencies, have come up again and become preserved in Talmudic literature, some in disguised and some in open fashion. In the body of religious tractates whose main aim is to strengthen and exalt monotheistic faith, you occasionally come across idolatrous residues form the earlier days, and these residues completely contradict the book's intentions and morality'. M.Y. Bin Gorion, Shaul ve-Paul, 18. 35 M.Y. Bin Gorion, Shaul ve-Paul, 17. Rather confusingly, Berdichevsky says in this paragraph: 'Abba Gulish is to be read as Abba Saul.' Since his main thesis is to distinguish between the Jewish Saul and the Gentile Abba Gulish or Paul, this must be put down to a copying error or confusion or evidence of Berdichevsky's experimentation with an alternative theory. 36 See my appendix 'The Story of Abbu Gulish in The Book of Tales' for the Hebrew text and translation.
intriguing parallels in the stories. He highlights the importance placed in both accounts upon Damascus, 37 and notes that both Paul and Abba Gulish had been treasurers 38 associated with accusations of embezzlement of funds meant for the poor. 39 Both men are described as zealous against idolatry, 40 both became fully convinced of the new faith's power and truth having had their blindness miraculously healed, 41 and both are responsible for the conversion of many [7]gentiles. 42 Pointing out that, as a convert, Abba Gulish would not have been appointed administrator of poor money entrusted to the temple priest, Berdichevsky comes to the conclusion that the text as it stands does not make sense, and that it must be referring to 'a new community whose members, who had just come to the faith, appointed him their treasurer'. 43 The conversion of Abba Gulish, he argues, had been from idolatry to an early form of Christianity rather than to Judaism. Thus the story was in fact a Christian one, albeit Gulish represents an alternative but more authoritative version of the conversion of Paul. He argues that the recognition of Paul's pagan background also explains his success among emerged from among them, and all the more so by a former priest. 44 When properly reconstructed, the story ran as follows.
[Paul] was an idolatrous priest in a temple in Damascus; and there appears to have been there a small Christian community, which was persecuted by the idolatrous priests, and especially by [Paul]. At a time of severe illness and inner distress, [Paul] appealed to the god of the Christians and was healed; at that moment he became a Christian. On behalf of the Christian community he was appointed as treasurer, became blind, went back to Damascus and could see again. Thanks to the miracle, he succeeded in converting Damascenes to Christianity. 45 The Hebrew version of the story might have been adapted by its editors so that the name 'Jesus' had been replaced by 'Sovereign of the Universe' but the essence of the story remained the same: the hero was a pagan who became an emissary to the pagans on behalf of a community of the faithful. 46 126. This is one of several occasions when, rather confusingly, Berdichevsky writes 'Saul' despite the fact that the logic of the two-person theory requires 'Paul'. It may be a copying error or alternative theory in which Saul, Paul and Abba Gulish are one person. According to the two-person theory, he cannot actually mean 'Saul', since he argues elsewhere that Saul was a distinct person, a Jew who is referred to in the early part of Acts and (as Abba Shaul) in a few tractates in the Talmud. He cannot mean 'Saul-Paul' since he is with the Gentile Paul. In this quotation, then, 'Saul' has been replaced with 'Paul.' Berdichevsky was nonetheless convinced that the former pagan priest was soon leading this Gentile Christian group and, ultimately, should be held responsible for its spectacular success.
Over time, Berdichevsky suggests, this new anti-idolatrous Gentile movement sought to attach itself to the existing monotheistic tradition of Judaism. 47 With the destruction of the Temple, Judaism itself had become fragmented and it so happened that the form of Judaism that the Gentile Paulinists found most conducive was the Jewish-Christian movement, that is, the followers of Jesus. 48 The Gentile known as Abba Gulish or Paul and the Jew Saul were two different people, but, as a means by which to give Gentile Christianity greater credibility, they were merged within Christian tradition. Berdichevsky argues that 'only after the characters of Saul and Paul were joined together was a story of conversion attributed to Saul, also.' 49 As he explains, A religious movement became attached to Abba Gulish the convert. The circle of the followers of Jesus . . . which converged after his death, was initially independent and developed separately.
Saul since the latter had the privilege to be called by Jesus, according to legend. 50 [8]The predominance of the miraculous conversion story within Christian tradition could be explained psychologically in terms of the desire of many early Christians to sever their oppressive ties to their past, 'and Paul's example served as a source of encouragement for them.' 51 pagan, not Jewish. Secondly, Gentile Christianity's ancient strategy to invest itself with authority by associating with Judaism had now been revealed and discredited. Thirdly, the universalist tendency of its founder, Paul, had been trumped by the Jewish nationalist spirit for, according to Berdichevsky, the historical development had been from the notion of a cosmic Christ to that of a Jewish messiah, and not vice versa, as many scholars would have it. According to his own researches, Gentile Christianity won 'ordination' from Judaism after the fact . . . Christianity did not reach the Gentiles via Jewish Christianity. It stands more to reason that Christianity, which was Gentile from its beginning, succeeded in gaining followers among the Jews. Accepted opinion indicates, of things occurred in a different order. It appears that Christianity was born within Diaspora Jewry; through the conversion of many Gentiles, new ideas and redemptive hopes arose. These general ideas slowly took on a national form; thus it turned out that the saviour of humankind gradually became the saviour of Israel . . . [T]he Jewish-national Christianity rose up against the international ambitions which had preceded it. 52 Both Klausner and Berdichevsky had sought to criticise Paul from a Zionist perspective. But whereas Klausner had ultimately found fault with the Diaspora Pharisee in his lack of nationalist feeling yet, at the same time, had been uncomfortable about disowning him entirely, Berdichevsky's critique was quite unambivalent. Attributing historicity to a Hebrew legend rather than a Greek Christian one, Berdichevsky saw Paulinism as an essentially Christianity in the Jewish Paul's adoption of non-Jewish, Hellenistic ideas, Berdichevsky went one step further and denied Paul even a Jewish birth. In this way he refuted the idea that Christianity was simply Judaism polluted by pagan thought; rather, by attributing its emergence to a pagan priest, the Zionist scholar sought to demonstrate the fundamentally non-Jewish, alien nature of Christianity.
Berdichevsky's incomplete work over the quality of the scholarship. Certainly there has been published in 1971. No doubt this is because it appears as a quaint throw-back to some kind of nineteenth-century speculative scholarship, such as the Life-of-Jesus genre, whose authors breathlessly asserted the conspiratorial links between Jesus and secret Jewish societies and who proffered conspiracy theories for his death and resurrection. One might argue that a similar fate has befallen Hyam Maccoby, whose own revisionist history of Paul as a gentileborn opportunist, The Mythmaker, was also dependent upon an ancient account of dubious historical import. 53 Fundamentally, however, the logic of Berdichevsky's anti-Christian polemic fails at an internal level, about which Hotam has nothing to say. Berdichevsky assumed three concentric rings of Jewish authenticity in the ancient world (that is, Palestinian to Diaspora Judaism, he says, that had been the source of early [9]Christianity. 54 It is the claims that Paul converted to Christianity and that he was responsible for its pagan origins. If the 'small Christian community' in Damascus which Abbu Gulish / Paul joined was 'Christian' in any meaningful sense, then where did they get their ideas from if not from a Jewish-Christian source? Why call them 'Christians' (notzrim) if they are understood to have no connections to Jesus of Nazareth? If, on the other hand, these 'Christians' whom Abba Gulish / Paul joined as a convert had been composed of pagan converts to Judaism who had veered away to create a new universalist religion (a kind of proto-Christianity), why foundational for Christianity?
Berdichevsky's Saul and Paul is certainly a political theology of sorts, but it is also a useful reminder of the power of rhetoric. The breathtaking audacity of the central claim is all the 53 In The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1986) and Paul and Hellenism (London: SCM, 1991), Maccoby augments the epistles and some of Acts with Epiphanius' (315-403) Refutations of Heretics, which records the accusations of the Ebionites (an early Jewish sect) against Paul. Maccoby concludes that Paul had no Pharisaic background, had Gentile parents, converted to Judaism in Tarsus, worked for the temple Police in Jerusalem and, having been disappointed in his advancement, founded a new religion in his search for fame. Amy-Jill Levine has described the later work as 'an assertive amalgam of insightful observation, historical fancy, and inconsistent argument'. The Jewish Quarterly Review 86:1-2 (1995), 230. 54 M.Y. Bin Gorion, Shaul ve-Paul, 128. more effective because it is communicated by a world-class writer. Arguably, it is only because it comes to us in an incomplete form that we are able to see so clearly how Berdichevsky's obsession with questions concerning Jewish authenticity coloured the study. The unresolved tensions that proliferate throughout the work reveal the Zionist author's primary concern, namely, to preserve the Jewish land, religion and people from the charge that they had given birth to Christianity; he could not tolerate the idea of Israel tainted by the link to the Diaspora religion par excellence. Berdichevsky's determination to rewrite the history of Christian origins is shared in common with many other Jewish commentators on the New Testament, including Klausner, but the extraordinary lengths he would go to achieve this end, in distinguishing Saul and Paul, make him unique.

Appendix: The Story of Abbu Gulish in The Book of Tales 55
Rabbi Pinchas said, There was a story in Damascus about an idolatrous temple there. It had a priest whose name was Abba Gulish and he served before the idol many years. One time, a spirit of distress came upon him, and he cried for help before the idol for many days but to no avail.