Open Access Published by De Gruyter

Volume 11 Issue 17 - Special Issue: Tunable Nanophotonics

September 2022

Issue of Nanophotonics

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Contents
Journal Overview

Publicly Available August 23, 2022

Editorial

Open Access August 11, 2022

Tunable nanophotonics

Juejun Hu, Arseniy I. Kuznetsov, Volker J. Sorger, Isabelle Staude

Page range: 3741-3743

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Perspective

Open Access August 22, 2022

Toward a universal metasurface for optical imaging, communication, and computation

Prachi Thureja, Ruzan Sokhoyan, Claudio U. Hail, Jared Sisler, Morgan Foley, Meir Y. Grajower, Harry A. Atwater

Page range: 3745-3768

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Abstract

In recent years, active metasurfaces have emerged as a reconfigurable nanophotonic platform for the manipulation of light. Here, application of an external stimulus to resonant subwavelength scatterers enables dynamic control over the wavefront of reflected or transmitted light. In principle, active metasurfaces are capable of controlling key characteristic properties of an electromagnetic wave, such as its amplitude, phase, polarization, spectrum, and momentum. A ‘universal’ active metasurface should be able to provide independent and continuous control over all characteristic properties of light for deterministic wavefront shaping. In this article, we discuss strategies for the realization of this goal. Specifically, we describe approaches for high performance active metasurfaces, examine pathways for achieving two-dimensional control architectures, and discuss operating configurations for optical imaging, communication, and computation applications based on a universal active metasurface.

Reviews

Open Access August 17, 2022

Active and tunable nanophotonic metamaterials

Kebin Fan, Richard D. Averitt, Willie J. Padilla

Page range: 3769-3803

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Abstract

Metamaterials enable subwavelength tailoring of light–matter interactions, driving fundamental discoveries which fuel novel applications in areas ranging from compressed sensing to quantum engineering. Importantly, the metallic and dielectric resonators from which static metamaterials are comprised present an open architecture amenable to materials integration. Thus, incorporating responsive materials such as semiconductors, liquid crystals, phase-change materials, or quantum materials (e.g., superconductors, 2D materials, etc.) imbue metamaterials with dynamic properties, facilitating the development of active and tunable devices harboring enhanced or even entirely novel electromagnetic functionality. Ultimately, active control derives from the ability to craft the local electromagnetic fields; accomplished using a host of external stimuli to modify the electronic or optical properties of the responsive materials embedded into the active regions of the subwavelength resonators. We provide a broad overview of this frontier area of metamaterials research, introducing fundamental concepts and presenting control strategies that include electronic, optical, mechanical, thermal, and magnetic stimuli. The examples presented range from microwave to visible wavelengths, utilizing a wide range of materials to realize spatial light modulators, effective nonlinear media, on-demand optics, and polarimetric imaging as but a few examples. Often, active and tunable nanophotonic metamaterials yield an emergent electromagnetic response that is more than the sum of the parts, providing reconfigurable or real-time control of the amplitude, phase, wavevector, polarization, and frequency of light. The examples to date are impressive, setting the stage for future advances that are likely to impact holography, beyond 5G communications, imaging, and quantum sensing and transduction.

Open Access April 11, 2022

Design automation of photonic resonator weights

Thomas Ferreira de Lima, Eli A. Doris, Simon Bilodeau, Weipeng Zhang, Aashu Jha, Hsuan-Tung Peng, Eric C. Blow, Chaoran Huang, Alexander N. Tait, Bhavin J. Shastri, Paul R. Prucnal

Page range: 3805-3822

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Abstract

Neuromorphic photonic processors based on resonator weight banks are an emerging candidate technology for enabling modern artificial intelligence (AI) in high speed analog systems. These purpose-built analog devices implement vector multiplications with the physics of resonator devices, offering efficiency, latency, and throughput advantages over equivalent electronic circuits. Along with these advantages, however, often come the difficult challenges of compensation for fabrication variations and environmental disturbances. In this paper, we review sources of variation and disturbances from our experiments, as well as mathematically define quantities that model them. Then, we introduce how the physics of resonators can be exploited to weight and sum multiwavelength signals. Finally, we outline automated design and control methodologies necessary to create practical, manufacturable, and high accuracy/precision resonator weight banks that can withstand operating conditions in the field. This represents a road map for unlocking the potential of resonator weight banks in practical deployment scenarios.

Open Access May 16, 2022

Photonic (computational) memories: tunable nanophotonics for data storage and computing

Chuanyu Lian, Christos Vagionas, Theonitsa Alexoudi, Nikos Pleros, Nathan Youngblood, Carlos Ríos

Page range: 3823-3854

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Abstract

The exponential growth of information stored in data centers and computational power required for various data-intensive applications, such as deep learning and AI, call for new strategies to improve or move beyond the traditional von Neumann architecture. Recent achievements in information storage and computation in the optical domain, enabling energy-efficient, fast, and high-bandwidth data processing, show great potential for photonics to overcome the von Neumann bottleneck and reduce the energy wasted to Joule heating. Optically readable memories are fundamental in this process, and while light-based storage has traditionally (and commercially) employed free-space optics, recent developments in photonic integrated circuits (PICs) and optical nano-materials have opened the doors to new opportunities on-chip. Photonic memories have yet to rival their electronic digital counterparts in storage density; however, their inherent analog nature and ultrahigh bandwidth make them ideal for unconventional computing strategies. Here, we review emerging nanophotonic devices that possess memory capabilities by elaborating on their tunable mechanisms and evaluating them in terms of scalability and device performance. Moreover, we discuss the progress on large-scale architectures for photonic memory arrays and optical computing primarily based on memory performance.

Open Access July 15, 2022

Polymer modulators in silicon photonics: review and projections

Iman Taghavi, Maryam Moridsadat, Alexander Tofini, Shaheer Raza, Nicolas A. F. Jaeger, Lukas Chrostowski, Bhavin J. Shastri, Sudip Shekhar

Page range: 3855-3871

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Abstract

Optical modulators are vital for many applications, including telecommunication, data communication, optical computing, and microwave photonic links. A compact modulator with low voltage drive requirement, low power, high speed, and compatibility with CMOS foundry process is highly desirable. Current modulator technologies in Si suffer from trade-offs that constrain their power, performance (speed, drive voltage), and area. The introduction of additional materials to the silicon platform for efficient phase shift promises alternatives to relax those trade-offs. Si-organic-hybrid (SOH) devices demonstrate large modulation bandwidth leveraging the electro-optic (EO) effect and smaller drive voltage or footprint owing to a strong EO coefficient. In this study, we review various SOH modulators and describe their path towards integration to silicon, including their challenges associated with aging and temperature. We also briefly discuss other high-performance modulators such as plasmonic-organic-hybrid (POH), photonic-crystal-assisted SOH, and LiNbO 3 .

Research Articles

Open Access April 25, 2022

Nanostructured In₃SbTe₂ antennas enable switching from sharp dielectric to broad plasmonic resonances

Andreas Heßler, Sophia Wahl, Philip Trøst Kristensen, Matthias Wuttig, Kurt Busch, Thomas Taubner

Page range: 3871-3882

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Abstract

Phase-change materials (PCMs) allow for non-volatile resonance tuning of nanophotonic components. Upon switching, they offer a large dielectric contrast between their amorphous and crystalline phases. The recently introduced “plasmonic PCM” In 3 SbTe 2 (IST) additionally features in its crystalline phase a sign change of its permittivity over a broad infrared spectral range. While optical resonance switching in unpatterned IST thin films has been investigated before, nanostructured IST antennas have not been studied, yet. Here, we present numerical and experimental investigations of nanostructured IST rod and disk antennas. By crystallizing the IST with microsecond laser pulses, we switched individual antennas from narrow dielectric to broad plasmonic resonances. For the rod antennas, we demonstrated a resonance shift of up to 1.2 µm (twice the resonance width), allowing on/off switching of plasmonic resonances with a contrast ratio of 2.7. With the disk antennas, we realized an increase of the resonance width by more than 800% from 0.24 µm to 1.98 µm while keeping the resonance wavelength constant. Further, we demonstrated intermediate switching states by tuning the crystallization depth within the resonators. Our work empowers future design concepts for nanophotonic applications like active spectral filters, tunable absorbers, and switchable flat optics.

Open Access August 15, 2022

Reconfigurable multifunctional metasurfaces employing hybrid phase-change plasmonic architecture

Sajjad Abdollahramezani, Hossein Taghinejad, Tianren Fan, Mahmood Reza Marzban, Ali A. Eftekhar, Ali Adibi

Page range: 3883-3893

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Abstract

We present a hybrid device platform for creating an electrically reconfigurable metasurface formed by the integration of plasmonic nanostructures with phase-change material germanium antimony telluride (GST). By changing the phase of GST from amorphous to crystalline through Joule heating, a large range of responses from the metasurface can be achieved. Furthermore, by using the intermediate phases of GST, the metasurface can interact with the incident light in both over-coupling and under-coupling regimes, leading to an inherently broadband response. Through a detailed investigation of the nature of the fundamental modes, we demonstrate that changing the crystalline phase of the GST at the pixel-level enables an effective control over the key properties (i.e., amplitude, phase, and polarization) of incident light. This leads to the realization of a broadband electrically tunable multifunctional metadevice enabling beam switching, focusing, steering, and polarization conversion. Such a hybrid structure offers a high-speed, broadband, and nonvolatile reconfigurable paradigm for electrically programmable optical devices such as switches, holograms, and polarimeters.

Open Access June 1, 2022

Magnetic tuning of liquid crystal dielectric metasurfaces

Yana V. Izdebskaya, Ziwei Yang, Mingkai Liu, Duk-Yong Choi, Andrei Komar, Dragomir N. Neshev, Ilya V. Shadrivov

Page range: 3895-3900

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Abstract

Dielectric metasurfaces hold an exceptional potential for the next generation of tunable optical systems that find applications in sensing, ranging, and imaging. Here, we introduce and demonstrate magnetic field tuning of dielectric metasurfaces infiltrated with liquid crystals. To illustrate this concept, we show how the reorientation of liquid crystal induced by the magnetic field changes the spectrum of the resonant dielectric metasurface. This new magnetic-field tuning approach offers significant advantages over other liquid crystal tuning methods since it does not require pre-alignment or the fabrication of structured electrodes, which are both challenging when dealing with metasurfaces. Furthermore, there are no strict limitations on the thickness of liquid crystal cells. Importantly, our approach allows for gradual tuning of the resonances by changing the magnetic-field orientation and, thereby, shows good promise for highly tunable optical metadevices.

Open Access May 24, 2022

Double-sided liquid crystal metasurfaces for electrically and mechanically controlled broadband visible anomalous refraction

Maxim V. Gorkunov, Alena V. Mamonova, Irina V. Kasyanova, Alexander A. Ezhov, Vladimir V. Artemov, Ivan V. Simdyankin, Artur R. Geivandov

Page range: 3901-3912

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Abstract

Liquid crystals self-assemble on nanopatterned alignment layers into purely soft matter metasurfaces sensitive to external stimuli and imparting tailored spatial modulations to transmitted light wavefronts. Upon fine optimization, they are capable of efficient light deflection by virtue of anomalous refraction into a dominating transmission diffraction order. To expand the spectral range and acquire additional functionality, we put forward the double-sided metasurface design based on the liquid crystal alignment by a pair of complementing patterned substrates. We numerically optimize, fabricate, and experimentally characterize metasurfaces refracting red light with an efficiency of up to 70% and sustaining the efficiency above 50% in a broad range of visible wavelengths exceeding 500 nm. We verify that the refraction is reversibly switched in less than 10 ms by voltages of a few volts. We also report on a remarkable mechanical reconfigurability, as micrometer-scale relative substrate shift flips the refraction direction.

Open Access June 1, 2022

Tunable optical anisotropy in epitaxial phase-change VO₂ thin films

Jimmy John, Amine Slassi, Jianing Sun, Yifei Sun, Romain Bachelet, José Pénuelas, Guillaume Saint-Girons, Régis Orobtchouk, Shriram Ramanathan, Arrigo Calzolari, Sébastien Cueff

Page range: 3913-3922

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Abstract

We theoretically and experimentally demonstrate a strong and tunable optical anisotropy in epitaxially-grown VO 2 thin films. Using a combination of temperature-dependent X-ray diffraction, spectroscopic ellipsometry measurements and first-principle calculations, we reveal that these VO 2 thin films present an ultra-large birefringence (Δ n > 0.9). Furthermore, leveraging the insulator-to-metal transition of VO 2 , we demonstrate a dynamic reconfiguration of optical properties from birefringent to hyperbolic, which are two distinctive regimes of anisotropy. Such a naturally birefringent and dynamically switchable platform paves the way for multi-functional devices exploiting tunable anisotropy and hyperbolic dispersion.

Open Access June 13, 2022

Tuning carrier density and phase transitions in oxide semiconductors using focused ion beams

Hongyan Mei, Alexander Koch, Chenghao Wan, Jura Rensberg, Zhen Zhang, Jad Salman, Martin Hafermann, Maximilian Schaal, Yuzhe Xiao, Raymond Wambold, Shriram Ramanathan, Carsten Ronning, Mikhail A. Kats

Page range: 3923-3932

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Abstract

We demonstrate spatial modification of the optical properties of thin-film metal oxides, zinc oxide (ZnO) and vanadium dioxide (VO 2 ) as representatives, using a commercial focused ion beam (FIB) system. Using a Ga + FIB and thermal annealing, we demonstrated variable doping of a wide-bandgap semiconductor, ZnO, achieving carrier concentrations from 10 18 cm −3 to 10 20 cm −3 . Using the same FIB without subsequent thermal annealing, we defect-engineered a correlated semiconductor, VO 2 , locally modifying its insulator-to-metal transition (IMT) temperature by up to ∼25 °C. Such area-selective modification of metal oxides by direct writing using a FIB provides a simple, mask-less route to the fabrication of optical structures, especially when multiple or continuous levels of doping or defect density are required.

Open Access June 10, 2022

Zinc oxide (ZnO) hybrid metasurfaces exhibiting broadly tunable topological properties

Yuhao Wu, Sarah N. Chowdhury, Lei Kang, Soham S. Saha, Alexandra Boltasseva, Alexander V. Kildishev, Douglas H. Werner

Page range: 3933-3942

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Abstract

Extreme light confinement observed in periodic photonic structures, such as the vortex singularities in momentum ( k ) space, has been associated with their topological nature. Consequently, by exploiting and tuning their topological properties, optical metasurfaces have been demonstrated as an attractive platform for active photonics. However, given the fact that most active media under external excitations can only provide limited refractive index change, the potential advancements offered by the topological character of active metasurfaces have remained mostly unexplored. Zinc oxide (ZnO), which has recently exhibited optically-induced extraordinarily large permittivity modulations at visible and near-infrared frequencies, is an excellent active material for dynamic metasurfaces exhibiting strong tuning. This work demonstrates that a hybrid metasurface consisting of an array of ZnO nanodisks on a silver backplane displays broadly tunable topological properties. In particular, by performing k -space scattering simulations using measured pump-fluence-dependent material properties of ZnO, we study in detail the light reflection from the hybrid metasurface. Our results validate that the large k -space topology tuning of the metasurface can result in enormously strong polarization manipulation of near-infrared light in the vicinity of the topological features. The observed polarization switching effect is highly sensitive to the polarization and wavelength of an incident wave, owing to the symmetry and dispersion characteristics of the proposed system. Our study indicates that leveraging a combination of the extraordinary material properties and the k -space topology, hybrid metasurfaces based on ZnO may open new avenues for creating all-optical switchable metadevices.

Open Access June 13, 2022

Temporal and spatial tuning of optical constants in praseodymium doped ceria by electrochemical means

Dmitri Kalaev, Han Gil Seo, Harry L. Tuller

Page range: 3943-3952

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Abstract

Temporal and spatial tuning of the refractive index of optical thin films is desired for flat optics applications. The redistribution of mobile ions in mixed ionic-electronic conductors (MIEC) has been demonstrated to serve as a viable means for achieving optical tuning down to the nanoscale. Here we studied the dynamic range of the optical tuning achievable in the refractive index, in the MIEC oxide – Pr x Ce 1− x O 2− δ (PCO), for x = 0.1, 0.2 and 0.4, at 500 °C, by in-situ spectrophotometry. Significant increases in the modulation of both the imaginary and real optical constants in the visible and the adjacent spectra were obtained for increased doping levels. Device employing an electrochemical titration method was implemented to modulate the oxygen concentration, and thereby the optical transmission of PCO. Incorporation of a patterned top electrode allowed for the demonstration of spatial control of PCO thin film properties by in-situ video imaging of the optical switching process. The electrochemically induced optical state is shown to remain non-volatile upon quenching the device to room temperature under applied bias.

Open Access July 14, 2022

Negative photoresponse in Ti₃C₂T_x MXene monolayers

Nataliia S. Vorobeva, Saman Bagheri, Angel Torres, Alexander Sinitskii

Page range: 3953-3960

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Abstract

Two-dimensional transition metal carbides, nitrides, and carbonitrides, collectively known as MXenes, are finding numerous applications in many different areas, including optoelectronics and photonics, but there is limited information about their intrinsic photoresponse. In this study, we investigated the visible and near-infrared range photoresponse of Ti 3 C 2 T x , the most popular MXene material to date. The electrical measurements were performed on devices based on individual monolayer Ti 3 C 2 T x MXene flakes, which were characterized by a variety of microscopic and spectroscopic methods. For MXene devices with different electrode layouts, the current reproducibly decreased under illumination with either white light or lasers with different wavelengths in the visible and near-infrared region, thus demonstrating a negative photoresponse. The understanding of the intrinsic photoresponse of Ti 3 C 2 T x should facilitate the optoelectronic and photonic applications of MXenes.

Open Access June 6, 2022

Phase-change perovskite metasurfaces for dynamic color tuning

Jingyi Tian, Daniele Cortecchia, Yutao Wang, Hailong Liu, Elena Feltri, Hong Liu, Giorgio Adamo, Cesare Soci

Page range: 3961-3968

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Abstract

Halide perovskite metasurfaces are attracting increasing interest for applications in light-emitting and display technologies. To access the wide range of colors required for these applications, the main mechanism exploited thus far has been chemical engineering of the perovskite compounds – this constitutes a significant limitation for the dynamic switching of optical response desirable in actual devices. Here we demonstrate polarization-dependent, dynamic control of structural color and emission wavelength in an all-dielectric phase-change halide perovskite nanograting metasurface, by temperature tuning. This is underpinned by the significant change in the perovskite optical constants which accompanies its phase-transition around room temperature. The functionalities demonstrated in our work bearing potential for applications in light-emitting devices, displays and spatial-light-modulators.

Open Access May 30, 2022

Thermally reconfigurable metalens

Anna Archetti, Ren-Jie Lin, Nathanaël Restori, Fatemeh Kiani, Ted V. Tsoulos, Giulia Tagliabue

Page range: 3969-3980

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Abstract

Reconfigurable metalenses are compact optical components composed by arrays of meta-atoms that offer unique opportunities for advanced optical systems, from microscopy to augmented reality platforms. Although poorly explored in the context of reconfigurable metalenses, thermo-optical effects in resonant silicon nanoresonators have recently emerged as a viable strategy to realize tunable meta-atoms. In this work, we report the proof-of-concept design of an ultrathin (300 nm thick) and thermo-optically reconfigurable silicon metalens operating at a fixed, visible wavelength (632 nm). Importantly, we demonstrate continuous, linear modulation of the focal-length up to 21% (from 165 μm at 20 °C to 135 μm at 260 °C). Operating under right-circularly polarized light, our metalens exhibits an average conversion efficiency of 26%, close to mechanically modulated devices, and has a diffraction-limited performance. Overall, we envision that, combined with machine-learning algorithms for further optimization of the meta-atoms, thermally reconfigurable metalenses with improved performance will be possible. Also, the generality of this approach could offer inspiration for the realization of active metasurfaces with other emerging materials within field of thermo-nanophotonics.

Open Access May 16, 2022

Nonlinear optical heating of all-dielectric super-cavity: efficient light-to-heat conversion through giant thermorefractive bistability

Daniil Ryabov, Olesiya Pashina, George Zograf, Sergey Makarov, Mihail Petrov

Page range: 3981-3991

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Abstract

Optical heating of resonant nanostructures is one of the key issues in modern nanophotonics, being either harmful or desirable effect depending on the applications. Despite a linear regime of light-to-heat conversion being well-studied both for metal and semiconductor resonant systems is generalized as a critical coupling condition, the clear strategy to optimize optical heating upon high-intensity light irradiation is still missing. This work proposes a simple analytical model for such a problem, taking into account material properties changes caused by the heating. It allows us to derive a new general critical coupling condition for the nonlinear case, requiring a counterintuitive initial spectral mismatch between the pumping light frequency and the resonant one. Based on the suggested strategy, we develop an optimized design for efficient nonlinear optical heating, which employs a cylindrical nanoparticle supporting the quasi bound state in the continuum mode (quasi-BIC or so-called ‘super-cavity mode’) excited by the incident azimuthal vector beam. Our approach provides a background for various nonlinear experiments related to optical heating and bistability, where self-action of the intense laser beam can change resonant properties of the irradiated nanostructure.

Open Access May 30, 2022

Electro-mechanical to optical conversion by plasmonic-ferroelectric nanostructures

Artemios Karvounis, Rachel Grange

Page range: 3993-4000

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Abstract

Barium titanate (BaTiO 3 ) is a lead-free ferroelectric crystal used in electro-mechanical transducers and electro-optic films. Nanomechanical devices based on thin films of BaTiO 3 are still unavailable, as the internal stress of thin ferroelectric films results in brittle fracture. Here, we use the electro-mechanical force to fabricate deformable assemblies (nanobeams) of BaTiO 3 nanocrystals, on top of plasmonic metasurfaces. The mechanical deformation of the nanobeams is driven by the piezoelectric response of the BaTiO 3 nanocrystals. The plasmonic-ferroelectric nanostructures due to the plasmonic enhancement enable subwavelength interaction lengths and support reflection modulation up to 2.936 ± 0.008%. Their frequency response is tested across 50 kHz up to 2 MHz and is dependent on the mechanical oscillations of the deformable BaTiO 3 nanobeams. The ferroelectric nanobeams support mechanical nonlinearities, which offer additional control over the electro-mechanical to optical conversion.

Open Access April 8, 2022

100 GHz micrometer-compact broadband monolithic ITO Mach–Zehnder interferometer modulator enabling 3500 times higher packing density

Yaliang Gui, Behrouz Movahhed Nouri, Mario Miscuglio, Rubab Amin, Hao Wang, Jacob B. Khurgin, Hamed Dalir, Volker J. Sorger

Page range: 4001-4009

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Abstract

Electro-optic modulators provide a key function in optical transceivers and increasingly in photonic programmable application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) for machine learning and signal processing. However, both foundry-ready silicon-based modulators and conventional material-based devices utilizing lithium-niobate fall short in simultaneously providing high chip packaging density and fast speed. Current-driven ITO-based modulators have the potential to achieve both enabled by efficient light–matter interactions. Here, we introduce micrometer-compact Mach–Zehnder interferometer (MZI)-based modulators capable of exceeding 100 GHz switching rates. Integrating ITO-thin films atop a photonic waveguide, one can achieve an efficient V π L ${V}_{\pi }L$ = 0.1 V mm, spectrally broadband, and compact MZI phase shifter. Remarkably, this allows integrating more than 3500 of these modulators within the same chip area as only one single silicon MZI modulator. The modulator design introduced here features a holistic photonic, electronic, and RF-based optimization and includes an asymmetric MZI tuning step to optimize the extinction ratio (ER)-to-insertion loss (IL) and dielectric thickness sweep to balance the trade-offs between ER and speed. Driven by CMOS compatible bias voltage levels, this device is the first to address next-generation modulator demands for processors of the machine intelligence revolution, in addition to the edge and cloud computing demands as well as optical transceivers alike.

Open Access March 17, 2022

Integrated ultra-high-performance graphene optical modulator

Elham Heidari, Hamed Dalir, Farzad Mokhtari Koushyar, Behrouz Movahhed Nouri, Chandraman Patil, Mario Miscuglio, Deji Akinwande, Volker J. Sorger

Page range: 4011-4016

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Abstract

With the increasing need for large volumes of data processing, transport, and storage, optimizing the trade-off between high-speed and energy consumption in today’s optoelectronic devices is getting increasingly difficult. Heterogeneous material integration into silicon- and nitride-based photonics has showed high-speed promise, albeit at the expense of millimeter-to centimeter-scale footprints. The hunt for an electro-optic modulator that combines high speed, energy efficiency, and compactness to support high component density on-chip continues. Using a double-layer graphene optical modulator integrated on a Silicon photonics platform, we are able to achieve 60 GHz speed (3 dB roll-off), micrometer compactness, and efficiency of 2.25 fJ/bit in this paper. The electro-optic response is boosted further by a vertical distributed-Bragg-reflector cavity, which reduces the driving voltage by about 40 times while maintaining a sufficient modulation depth (5.2 dB/V). Modulators that are small, efficient, and quick allow high photonic chip density and performance, which is critical for signal processing, sensor platforms, and analog- and neuromorphic photonic processors.

Open Access May 2, 2022

Inducing optical self-pulsation by electrically tuning graphene on a silicon microring

Marcus Tamura, Hugh Morison, Bhavin J. Shastri

Page range: 4017-4025

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Abstract

A mechanism for self-pulsation in a proposed graphene-on-silicon microring device is studied. The relevant nonlinear effects of two photon absorption, Kerr effect, saturable absorption, free carrier absorption, and dispersion are included in a coupled mode theory framework. We look at the electrical tunability of absorption and the Kerr effect in graphene. We show that the microring can switch from a stable rest state to a self-pulsation state by electrically tuning the graphene under constant illumination. This switching is indicative of a supercritical Hopf bifurcation since the frequency of the pulses is approximately constant at 7 GHz and the amplitudes initial grow with increasing Fermi level. The CMOS compatibility of graphene and the opto-electronic mechanism allows this to device to be fairly easily integrated with other silicon photonic devices.

Open Access May 30, 2022

All-optical tunable wavelength conversion in opaque nonlinear nanostructures

Jiannan Gao, Maria Antonietta Vincenti, Jesse Frantz, Anthony Clabeau, Xingdu Qiao, Liang Feng, Michael Scalora, Natalia M. Litchinitser

Page range: 4027-4035

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Abstract

We demonstrate a simple, femtosecond-scale wavelength tunable, subwavelength-thick nanostructure that performs efficient wavelength conversion from the infrared to the ultraviolet. The output wavelength can be tuned by varying the input power of the infrared pump beam and/or relative delay of the control beam with respect to the pump beam, and does not require any external realignment of the system. The nanostructure is made of chalcogenide glass that possesses strong Kerr nonlinearity and high linear refractive index, leading to strong field enhancement at Mie resonances. Although, as many other materials, chalcogenide glasses absorb in the ultraviolet range, fundamental phase-locking mechanism between the pump and the inhomogeneous portion of the third-harmonic signal enables ultraviolet transmission with little or no absorption.

Open Access April 12, 2022

Unraveling the temperature dynamics and hot electron generation in tunable gap-plasmon metasurface absorbers

Larousse Khosravi Khorashad, Christos Argyropoulos

Page range: 4037-4052

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Abstract

Localized plasmons formed in ultrathin metallic nanogaps can lead to robust absorption of incident light. Plasmonic metasurfaces based on this effect can efficiently generate energetic charge carriers, also known as hot electrons, owing to their ability to squeeze and enhance electromagnetic fields in confined subwavelength spaces. However, it is very challenging to accurately identify and quantify the dynamics of hot carriers, mainly due to their ultrafast time decay. Their nonequilibrium temperature response is one of the key factors missing to understand the short time decay and overall transient tunable absorption performance of gap-plasmon metasurfaces. Here, we systematically study the temperature dynamics of hot electrons and their transition into thermal carriers at various timescales from femto to nanoseconds by using the two-temperature model. Additionally, the hot electron temperature and generation rate threshold values are investigated by using a hydrodynamic nonlocal model approach that is more accurate when ultrathin gaps are considered. The derived temperature dependent material properties are used to study the ultrafast transient nonlinear modification in the absorption spectrum before plasmon-induced lattice heating is established leading to efficient tunable nanophotonic absorber designs. We also examine the damage threshold of these plasmonic absorbers under various pulsed laser illuminations, an important quantity to derive the ultimate input intensity limits that can be used in various emerging nonlinear optics and other tunable nanophotonic applications. The presented results elucidate the role of hot electrons in the response of gap-plasmon metasurface absorbers which can be used to design more efficient photocatalysis, photovoltaics, and photodetection devices.

Open Access May 18, 2022

Nonlinear response of Q-boosting metasurfaces beyond the time-bandwidth limit

Pavel A. Shafirin, Varvara V. Zubyuk, Andrey A. Fedyanin, Maxim R. Shcherbakov

Page range: 4053-4061

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Abstract

Resonant nanostructures, such as photonic metasurfaces, have created an unprecedented case for enhanced light–matter interactions through local field engineering. However, the presence of resonances fundamentally limits the bandwidth of such interactions. Here, we report on amending the nonlinear optical response of a semiconducting metasurface through Q-boosting, where the Q-factor of a metasurface rapidly increases with time. The coupled-mode theory reveals overcoming the bandwidth limit by coupling a broadband signal to a bandwidth-matched resonance and Q-boosting at a timescale faster than a resonator lifetime. A control–excitation experiment simulation using a tailored Q-boosting silicon-germanium metasurface predicts the third-harmonic enhancement by factors of 8 (peak) and 4.5 (integrated) against the best-case static metasurface. An analysis of free-carrier losses based on experimental data shows robustness to nonradiative losses and offers a viable pathway to increasing the light–matter interactions beyond the bandwidth limit, with implications in nonlinear and quantum optics, sensing, and telecommunication technologies.

Open Access February 11, 2022

Broadband photonic tensor core with integrated ultra-low crosstalk wavelength multiplexers

Frank Brückerhoff-Plückelmann, Johannes Feldmann, Helge Gehring, Wen Zhou, C. David Wright, Harish Bhaskaran, Wolfram Pernice

Page range: 4063-4072

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Abstract

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) systems in the daily life greatly increases the amount of data generated and processed. In addition to the large computational power required, the hardware needs to be compact and energy efficient. One promising approach to fulfill those requirements is phase-change material based photonic neuromorphic computing that enables in-memory computation and a high degree of parallelization. In the following, we present an optimized layout of a photonic tensor core (PTC) which is designed to perform real valued matrix vector multiplications and operates at telecommunication wavelengths. We deploy the well-studied phase-change material Ge 2 Sb 2 Te 5 (GST) as an optical attenuator to perform single positive valued multiplications. In order to generalize the multiplication to arbitrary real factors, we develop a novel symmetric multiplication unit which directly includes a reference-computation branch. The variable GST attenuator enables a modulation depth of 5 dB over a wavelength range of 100 nm with a wavelength dependency below 0.8 dB. The passive photonic circuit itself ensures equal coupling to the main-computation and reference-computation branch over the complete wavelength range. For the first time, we integrate wavelength multiplexers (MUX) together with a photonic crossbar array on-chip, paving the way towards fully integrated systems. The MUX are crucial for the PTC since they enable multiple computational channels in a single photonic crossbar array. We minimize the crosstalk between the channels by designing Bragg scattering based MUX. By cascading, we achieve an extinction ratio larger than 61 dB while the insertion loss is below 1 dB.

Open Access May 25, 2022

Programmable chalcogenide-based all-optical deep neural networks

Ting Yu Teo, Xiaoxuan Ma, Ernest Pastor, Hao Wang, Jonathan K. George, Joel K. W. Yang, Simon Wall, Mario Miscuglio, Robert E. Simpson, Volker J. Sorger

Page range: 4073-4088

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Abstract

We demonstrate a passive all-chalcogenide all-optical perceptron scheme. The network’s nonlinear activation function (NLAF) relies on the nonlinear response of Ge 2 Sb 2 Te 5 to femtosecond laser pulses. We measured the sub-picosecond time-resolved optical constants of Ge 2 Sb 2 Te 5 at a wavelength of 1500 nm and used them to design a high-speed Ge 2 Sb 2 Te 5 -tuned microring resonator all-optical NLAF. The NLAF had a sigmoidal response when subjected to different laser fluence excitation and had a dynamic range of −9.7 dB. The perceptron’s waveguide material was AlN because it allowed efficient heat dissipation during laser switching. A two-temperature analysis revealed that the operating speed of the NLAF is ≤ 1 $\le 1$ ns. The percepton’s nonvolatile weights were set using low-loss Sb 2 S 3 -tuned Mach Zehnder interferometers (MZIs). A three-layer deep neural network model was used to test the feasibility of the network scheme and a maximum training accuracy of 94.5% was obtained. We conclude that combining Sb 2 S 3 -programmed MZI weights with the nonlinear response of Ge 2 Sb 2 Te 5 to femtosecond pulses is sufficient to perform energy-efficient all-optical neural classifications at rates greater than 1 GHz.

Open Access April 25, 2022

Matrix eigenvalue solver based on reconfigurable photonic neural network

Kun Liao, Chentong Li, Tianxiang Dai, Chuyu Zhong, Hongtao Lin, Xiaoyong Hu, Qihuang Gong

Page range: 4089-4099

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Abstract

The solution of matrix eigenvalues has always been a research hotspot in the field of modern numerical analysis, which has important value in practical application of engineering technology and scientific research. Despite the fact that currently existing algorithms for solving the eigenvalues of matrices are well-developed to try to satisfy both in terms of computational accuracy and efficiency, few of them have been able to be realized on photonic platform. The photonic neural network not only has strong judgment in solving inference tasks due to the superior learning ability, but also makes full use of the advantages of photonic computing with ultrahigh speed and ultralow energy consumption. Here, we propose a strategy of an eigenvalue solver for real-value symmetric matrices based on reconfigurable photonic neural networks. The strategy shows the feasibility of solving the eigenvalues of real-value symmetric matrices of n × n matrices with locally connected networks. Experimentally, we demonstrate the task of solving the eigenvalues of 2 × 2, 3 × 3, and 4 × 4 real-value symmetric matrices based on graphene/Si thermo-optical modulated reconfigurable photonic neural networks with saturated absorption nonlinear activation layer. The theoretically predicted test set accuracy of the 2 × 2 matrices is 93.6% with the measured accuracy of 78.8% in the experiment by the standard defined for simplicity of comparison. This work not only provides a feasible solution for the on-chip integrated photonic realization of eigenvalue solving of real-value symmetric matrices, but also lays the foundation for a new generation of intelligent on-chip integrated all-optical computing.

Open Access April 25, 2022

VO₂ metasurface smart thermal emitter with high visual transparency for passive radiative cooling regulation in space and terrestrial applications

Kai Sun, Wei Xiao, Callum Wheeler, Mirko Simeoni, Alessandro Urbani, Matteo Gaspari, Sandro Mengali, C.H. (Kees) de Groot, Otto L. Muskens

Page range: 4101-4114

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Abstract

Smart radiative cooling devices based on thermochromic materials such as vanadium dioxide (VO 2 ) are of practical interest for temperature regulation and artificial homeostasis, i.e., maintaining stable equilibrium conditions for survival, both in terrestrial and space applications. In traditional solar reflector configurations, solar absorption in the VO 2 layer is a performance limiting factor due to the multiple reflections of sunlight in the stack. Here, we demonstrate a visually transparent, smart radiator panel with reduced solar absorption. An Al-doped ZnO transparent conducting oxide layer acts as a frequency selective infrared back-reflector with high transmission of solar radiation. In this study we make use of high-quality VO 2 thin films deposited using atomic layer deposition and optimized annealing process. Patterning of the VO 2 layer into a metasurface results in a further reduction of the solar absorption parameter α to around 0.3, while exhibiting a thermal emissivity contrast Δ ε of 0.26 by exploiting plasmonic enhancement effects. The VO 2 metasurface provides a visual spectrum transmission of up to 62%, which is of interest for a range of applications requiring visual transparency. The transparent smart metasurface thermal emitter offers a new approach for thermal management in both space and terrestrial radiative cooling scenarios.

Open Access March 21, 2022

Narrowband diffuse thermal emitter based on surface phonon polaritons

Binze Ma, Yun Huang, Weiyi Zha, Bing Qin, Rui Qin, Pintu Ghosh, Sandeep Kaur, Min Qiu, Qiang Li

Page range: 4115-4122

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Abstract

Thermal emission engineering with ability to realize spectral and spatial selection has attracted great attention in recent years. Nanophotonic control of thermal radiation has demonstrated narrowband thermal emitter but with high angle-sensitivity and diffuse thermal emitter but with low quality factor ( Q ). Here, we demonstrate a simultaneous narrowband, diffuse thermal emitter consisting of 80 nm (< λ /100) thick Ge nanostructures on a silicon carbide (SiC) phononic material. Based on surface phonon polaritons, a spectral coherent emission with a high Q factor of 101 is achieved at ∼10.9 μm wavelength in experiment. Furthermore, this phonon-mediated nanostructure provides spatial control with strong diffuse thermal emission with a full angle at half maximum of 70°. Additionally, the emission wavelength and intensity are tuned by replacing Ge with phase change materials (Ge 2 Sb 2 Te 5 and In 3 SbTe 2 ). The designed narrowband diffuse thermal emitter offers new perspectives for the engineering of emission and paves the way for infrared applications, including thermal sources, radiative cooling, infrared sensing, and thermal photovoltaics.

Open Access May 16, 2022

Gap-plasmon-driven spin angular momentum selection of chiral metasurfaces for intensity-tunable metaholography working at visible frequencies

Younghwan Yang, Hongyoon Kim, Trevon Badloe, Junsuk Rho

Page range: 4123-4133

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Abstract

Tunable metasurfaces can replace conventional bulky active optical modules to realize practical flat optical devices such as lenses, LiDAR, holography, and augmented reality. However, tunable metasurfaces have generally been limited to switching between two distinct states. Here, we present liquid crystal (LC) integrated chiral metasurfaces, of which the metahologram intensity can be adjusted continuously between fully ‘on’ and ‘off’ states. The chiral metasurface consists of a gap-shifted split ring resonator (SRR), and exhibits spin angular momentum selection that reflects left-circularly-polarized light but perfectly absorbs right-circularly-polarized light (99.9%). The gap-shifted SRR realizes spin angular momentum selection using a metal–dielectric–metal multilayer structure and thereby induces a strong gap-plasmonic response, achieving the maximum calculated circular dichroism in reflection (CDR) of 0.99 at the wavelength of 635 nm. With the chiral metasurface, metaholograms are demonstrated with tunable intensities using LCs that change the polarization state of the output light using an applied voltage. With the LC integrated chiral metasurfaces, 23 steps of polarization are demonstrated for the continuous tuning of the holographic image intensity, achieving measured CDR of 0.91. The proposed LC integrated spin-selective chiral metasurface provides a new resource for development of compact active optical modules with continuously-tunable intensity.

Open Access July 14, 2022

Optical nonreciprocity via transmissive time-modulated metasurfaces

Hooman Barati Sedeh, Hediyeh Mohammadi Dinani, Hossein Mosallaei

Page range: 4135-4148

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Abstract

The frequency mixing property of time-modulated metasurfaces, attributed to the well-known phenomenon of temporal photonic transition, has led to several exotic functionalities in the last lustrum. Based on this concept, we demonstrate the possibility of achieving nonreciprocal responses in the near-infrared regime via combining a time-modulated platform and a static high-Q metasurface. In particular, the temporal metasurface is designed to up-convert the incident tone to the first higher-order harmonic, while the static platform is implemented to establish a filtering behavior with respect to the incident frequency. It is shown that while the receiver port acquires the transmitted signal in the forward direction, the amount of received power becomes negligible under the time-reversal scenario, which indicates the presented configuration exhibits different optical responses from opposite directions. In addition, the role of operating wavelength and the modulation frequency on the power isolation level are investigated, and it is demonstrated that by appropriate selection, the isolation level can reach −30 dB. Since this is the first time a nonreciprocal response is obtained in the near-infrared regime via a pure temporal modulation, we believe the idea of this paper can be of utmost importance in various applications, such as tunable optical isolators.

Open Access June 10, 2022

Deep neural network enabled active metasurface embedded design

Sensong An, Bowen Zheng, Matthew Julian, Calum Williams, Hong Tang, Tian Gu, Hualiang Zhang, Hyun Jung Kim, Juejun Hu

Page range: 4149-4158

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Abstract

In this paper, we propose a deep learning approach for forward modeling and inverse design of photonic devices containing embedded active metasurface structures. In particular, we demonstrate that combining neural network design of metasurfaces with scattering matrix-based optimization significantly simplifies the computational overhead while facilitating accurate objective-driven design. As an example, we apply our approach to the design of a continuously tunable bandpass filter in the mid-wave infrared, featuring narrow passband (∼10 nm), high quality factors ( Q -factors ∼ 10 2 ), and large out-of-band rejection (optical density ≥ 3). The design consists of an optical phase-change material Ge 2 Sb 2 Se 4 Te (GSST) metasurface atop a silicon heater sandwiched between two distributed Bragg reflectors (DBRs). The proposed design approach can be generalized to the modeling and inverse design of arbitrary response photonic devices incorporating active metasurfaces.

About this journal

Nanophotonics covers recent international research results, specific developments in the field and novel applications and is published in partnership with Sciencewise. It belongs to the top journals in the field. Nanophotonics focuses on the interaction of photons with nano-structures, such as carbon nano-tubes, nano metal particles, nano crystals, semiconductor nano dots, photonic crystals, tissue and DNA. The journal covers the latest developments for physicists, engineers and material scientists, working in fields related to:

Plasmonics: metallic nanostructures and their optical properties
Meta materials, fundamentals and applications
Nanophotonic concepts and devices for solar energy harvesting and conversion
Near-field optical microscopy
Nanowaveguides and devices
Nano Lasers
Nanostructures, nanoparticles, nanotubes, nanowires, nanofibers
Photonic crystals
Integrated silicon photonics
Semiconductor quantum dots
Quantum optics & Quantum information
Ultrafast and nonlinear pulse propagation in nano materials and structures
Light-matter interaction, optical manipulation techniques
Nano-biophotonics
Optofluidics
Optomechanics
System applications based on nanophotonic devices
Nanofabrication techniques, thin film processing, self-assembly

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Publication Metrics

Average time from submission to initial Editorial Manager assessment: 5 days
Average time from submission to final decision (all article types): 57 days
Average time from acceptance to publication: 13 days

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Early Career Award 2023

The Early Career Award for 2023 is now open and welcoming nominations!

Do you know someone who has made an outstanding contribution to the field of nanophotonics? Nominate them for the Nanophotonics Early Career Award! This prestigious award recognizes four early career scientists annually for their accomplishments. Help them gain the recognition they deserve by submitting a nomination.

The award winners are awarded a prize of 1000 EUR and a waiver for publishing in Nanophotonics without charge.
Visit the award webpage for more information on the award, the criteria, and how to submit your nomination.
This award is fully sponsored by the Nanophotonics journal.

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Celebrating Young Scientists at Conferences

Nanophotonics supports young scientists through the sponsorship of poster awards at global conferences, recognizing the work of over 50 researchers every year. Please visit the winners' gallery to view their accomplishments.

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Special/Topical Issues

Published in 2023:

Quantum Nanophotonics (Guest Editors: Jaehyuck Jang, Minsu Jeong, and Junsuk Rho)
Neural network learning with photonics and for photonic circuit design (Guest Editors: Daniel Brunner, Miguel C. Soriano, and Shanhui Fan)
Nanofabrication (Guest Editors: Maria Farsari, Sang-Hyun Oh, and Joel Yang) 　
Metamaterials and Plasmonics in Asia (Guest Editors: Lei Zhou, JeongWeon Wu, Q-Han Park, Namkyoo Park and Teruya Ishihara)
Nanophotonics in support of Ukrainian Scientists (Guest Editors: Nader Engheta and Nikolay Zheludev; Publishing Editor: Dennis Couwenberg)

Published in 2022:

Photonic Angular Momentum (Guest Editors: Andrew Forbes, Qiwen Zhan and Siddharth Ramachandran)
New Trends in Nanophotonics and Advanced Photonic Materials (Guest Editor: Junsuk Rho)
Metamaterials and Plasmonics in Asia (Guest Editors: Lei Zhou, Tiejun Cui, JeongWeon Wu and Teruya Ishihara)
Tunable Nanophotonics (Guest Editors: Juejun Hu, Arseniy I. Kuznetsov, Volker J. Sorger, and Isabelle Staude)
Novel Two-Dimensional Materials Based Bio-Nanophotonic (Guest Editors: Hans Ågren, Jong Seung Kim and Han Zhang)

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Highly cited articles:

Polariton panorama
by D. N. Basov, Ana Asenjo-Garcia, P. James Schuck, Xiaoyang Zhu, Angel Rubio

Ultrasensitive terahertz sensing with high-Q toroidal dipole resonance governed by bound states in the continuum in all-dielectric metasurface
by Yulin Wang, Zhanghua Han, Yong Du, Jianyuan Qin

Non-Hermitian and topological photonics: optics at an exceptional point
by Midya Parto, Yuzhou G. N. Liu, Babak Bahari, Mercedeh Khajavikhan, Demetrios N. Christodoulides

Metasurfaces for biomedical applications: imaging and sensing from a nanophotonics perspective
by Shuyan Zhang, Chi Lok Wong, Shuwen Zeng, Renzhe Bi, Kolvyn Tai, Kishan Dholakia, Malini Olivo

THz spintronic emitters: a review on achievements and future challenges
by Evangelos Th. Papaioannou and René Beigang

Machine learning–assisted global optimization of photonic devices
by Zhaxylyk A. Kudyshev, Alexander V. Kildishev, Vladimir M. Shalaev, Alexandra Boltasseva

Topological photonics: Where do we go from here?
by Mordechai Segev, Miguel A. Bandres

Highly ordered arrays of hat-shaped hierarchical nanostructures with different curvatures for sensitive SERS and plasmon-driven catalysis
by Chao Zhang, Zhaoxiang Li, Si Qiu, Weixi Lu, Mingrui Shao, Chang Ji, Guangcan Wang, Xiaofei Zhao, Jing Yu and Zhen Li

Review on fractional vortex beam
by Hao Zhang, Jun Zeng, Xingyuan Lu, Zhuoyi Wang, Chengliang Zhao and Yangjian Cai

Orbital angular momentum and beyond in free-space optical communications
by Jian Wang, Jun Liu, Shuhui Li, Yifan Zhao, Jing Du and Long Zhu

Volume 11 Issue 17 - Special Issue: Tunable Nanophotonics

Issue of Nanophotonics

Frontmatter

Tunable nanophotonics

Toward a universal metasurface for optical imaging, communication, and computation

Abstract

Active and tunable nanophotonic metamaterials

Abstract

Design automation of photonic resonator weights

Abstract

Photonic (computational) memories: tunable nanophotonics for data storage and computing

Abstract

Polymer modulators in silicon photonics: review and projections

Abstract

Nanostructured In3SbTe2 antennas enable switching from sharp dielectric to broad plasmonic resonances

Abstract

Reconfigurable multifunctional metasurfaces employing hybrid phase-change plasmonic architecture

Abstract

Magnetic tuning of liquid crystal dielectric metasurfaces

Abstract

Double-sided liquid crystal metasurfaces for electrically and mechanically controlled broadband visible anomalous refraction

Abstract

Tunable optical anisotropy in epitaxial phase-change VO2 thin films

Abstract

Tuning carrier density and phase transitions in oxide semiconductors using focused ion beams

Abstract

Zinc oxide (ZnO) hybrid metasurfaces exhibiting broadly tunable topological properties

Abstract

Temporal and spatial tuning of optical constants in praseodymium doped ceria by electrochemical means

Abstract

Negative photoresponse in Ti3C2T x MXene monolayers

Abstract

Phase-change perovskite metasurfaces for dynamic color tuning

Abstract

Thermally reconfigurable metalens

Abstract

Nonlinear optical heating of all-dielectric super-cavity: efficient light-to-heat conversion through giant thermorefractive bistability

Abstract

Electro-mechanical to optical conversion by plasmonic-ferroelectric nanostructures

Abstract

100 GHz micrometer-compact broadband monolithic ITO Mach–Zehnder interferometer modulator enabling 3500 times higher packing density

Abstract

Integrated ultra-high-performance graphene optical modulator

Abstract

Inducing optical self-pulsation by electrically tuning graphene on a silicon microring

Abstract

All-optical tunable wavelength conversion in opaque nonlinear nanostructures

Abstract

Unraveling the temperature dynamics and hot electron generation in tunable gap-plasmon metasurface absorbers

Abstract

Nonlinear response of Q-boosting metasurfaces beyond the time-bandwidth limit

Abstract

Broadband photonic tensor core with integrated ultra-low crosstalk wavelength multiplexers

Abstract

Programmable chalcogenide-based all-optical deep neural networks

Abstract

Matrix eigenvalue solver based on reconfigurable photonic neural network

Abstract

VO2 metasurface smart thermal emitter with high visual transparency for passive radiative cooling regulation in space and terrestrial applications

Abstract

Narrowband diffuse thermal emitter based on surface phonon polaritons

Abstract

Gap-plasmon-driven spin angular momentum selection of chiral metasurfaces for intensity-tunable metaholography working at visible frequencies

Abstract

Optical nonreciprocity via transmissive time-modulated metasurfaces

Abstract

Deep neural network enabled active metasurface embedded design

Abstract

Nanostructured In₃SbTe₂ antennas enable switching from sharp dielectric to broad plasmonic resonances

Tunable optical anisotropy in epitaxial phase-change VO₂ thin films

Negative photoresponse in Ti₃C₂T_x MXene monolayers

VO₂ metasurface smart thermal emitter with high visual transparency for passive radiative cooling regulation in space and terrestrial applications