Open Access Published by De Gruyter Open Access

Volume 5 Issue 1

April 2019

Issue of Open Archaeology

Contents
Journal Overview

Topical Issue on Scientific Studies of Obsidian Sources and Trade, edited by Robert H. Tykot, Maria Clara Martinelli, Andrea Vianello

Open Access April 20, 2019

Editorial

Robert H. Tykot, Maria Clara Martinelli, Andrea Vianello

Page range: 1-3

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Open Access April 20, 2019

Characterization and Provenance of Archaeological Obsidian from Pirozza-Spalmatore, a Site of Neolithic Colonization on the Island of Ustica (Sicily)

Foresta Martin Franco, Robert H. Tykot

Page range: 4-17

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Abstract

This article presents the first archaeometric research carried out so far on a group of obsidian artifacts collected in the promontory of Pirozza-Spalmatore, the site of a Neolithic settlement on the small island of Ustica (Sicily, Italy). The obsidian assemblage, consisting of 28 artifacts, was subjected to optical, typological and geochemical analyses, the latter carried out by means of a portable pXRF, in order to determine their provenance. The results indicate that 89% of the fragments come from geologic obsidian outcrops on the island of Lipari, and 11% from the island of Pantelleria. It is thus ascertained that, during the Neolithic, Ustica used two different sources of obsidian, located 150–250 km away from the site. These obsidian sources were typical of some western Sicily prehistoric villages, while eastern Sicilian villages seem to have imported obsidian exclusively from Lipari. The analyses indicate that all the obsidian artifacts attributed to Lipari come from the geological deposit of Gabellotto, while those attributed to Pantelleria come from the two distinct deposits of Lago di Venere and Balata dei Turchi.

Open Access April 20, 2019

Petroarchaeometric Data on Antiparos Obsidian (Greece) for Provenance Study by SEM-EDS and XRF

Pasquale Acquafredda, Francesca Micheletti, Italo Maria Muntoni, Mauro Pallara, Robert H. Tykot

Page range: 18-30

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Abstract

The island of Antiparos belongs to the Aegean volcanic arc. The obsidian outcrops here contain pieces of excellent tool-making quality, but of small size making the raw material less attractive. Geological samples collected at Soros beach, at Blaco and Mastichi, in the southern part of the island, were analysed using Optical Microscopy, XRF (whole rock) and SEM-EDS (glass and microliths-microphenocrysts). The results obtained demonstrate the potential for distinguishing the Antiparos obsidian from other major central-western Mediterranean sources in an absolutely non-destructive way, using an XRF spectrometer or alternatively with an SEM equipped with an ED spectrometer.

Open Access April 20, 2019

Obsidian from the Bronze Age Village of San Vincenzo, Stromboli, Aeolian Islands: A Preliminary Investigation

Sara Tiziana Levi, Diego Calliari, Marta Arzarello, Valentina Cannavò, Andrea Di Renzoni, Effie Photos-Jones

Page range: 31-45

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Abstract

We present the preliminary results of the ongoing investigation of the obsidian from the Bronze Age village of San Vincenzo, Stromboli, Aeolian Islands, for the purpose of providing technological and typological characterization, and also provenance of the raw material, the latter with non-destructive p-XRF. Regarding provenance, the source of the raw material is likely to be neighbouring Lipari. It was transported to Stromboli and used mostly in a highly opportunistic manner and for the production of blade(let), non-bladelike tools (mainly scrapers) and micro bladelets. The obsidian distribution around the site shows concentration in both domestic and production areas.

Open Access April 20, 2019

Lipari (Aeolian Islands) Obsidian in the Late Neolithic. Artifacts, Supply and Function

Maria Clara Martinelli, Robert H. Tykot, Andrea Vianello

Page range: 46-64

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Abstract

This study focuses on the Neolithic, particularly on the emergence and development of the Diana Culture in the Aeolian Islands. Since the 1950s, the archaeological excavations unearthed parts of a settlement in a plain near the sea, contrada Diana in Lipari. We discuss the technological and typometric study of obsidian from trenches XVII, XXI, and XXXVI. A series of pXRF analyses on obsidian were carried out to identify their sources. A selection of retouched and non-retouched artifacts was examined, showing the higher variability in forms than at importing sites. This significance of this workshop area on prehistoric trade is assessed.

Open Access April 20, 2019

The Neolithic Site of San Martino — Sicily: Working and Circulation of Obsidian from Lipari

Tania Quero, Maria Clara Martinelli, Letterio Giordano

Page range: 65-82

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Abstract

The settlement of San Martino was found in 2008 on the Northern coast of Sicily (near the city of Spadafora — Messina). It is located on a hill slope about 4 km from the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea, near an ancient river which is no longer present today. The stratigraphy included two Neolithic levels: the oldest one belonged to the Stentinello culture (middle Neolithic — 6th-5th millennium BC cal) and the later one belonged to the Diana culture (Late Neolithic — 4th millennium BC cal). The San Martino lithic assemblage consists of a very significant amount of obsidian knapping products that have allowed us to examine the procurement, exploitation and circulation of this raw material, from the source on the island off the coast of Sicily, during the Neolithic period. Considering its strategic location and some analogies with other settlements nearby, the site of San Martino was probably part of the Lipari obsidian networks of exchange.

Open Access April 20, 2019

Geological Sources of Obsidian on Lipari and Artifact Production and Distribution in the Neolithic and Bronze Age Central Mediterranean

Robert H. Tykot

Page range: 83-105

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Abstract

The Aeolian island of Lipari, just north of eastern Sicily, was a major geological source of high quality obsidian that was volcanically formed in the Late Mesolithic, followed by another major production in the 1st millennium AD. A much earlier volcanic event on Lipari also produced some obsidian, but not of sufficient quality for tool production. A detailed geological survey of the Lipari obsidian source areas, including assessments of quantity, quality, accessibility, and visual variation was performed, followed by elemental analyses using INAA, LA-ICP-MS, ED-XRF, and pXRF which show that many different groups may be distinguished from each other. Geochemical analyses of several thousand obsidian artifacts from sites in Sicily and southern Italy reveal that two early Holocene subsources, Gabellotto Gorge and Canneto Dentro, were used during the Neolithic and Bronze Ages.

Open Access April 20, 2019

Two Contrasting Provenances of Prehistoric Obsidian Artifacts in South Korea: Mineralogical and Geochemical Characteristics

Yong-Joo Jwa, Seonbok Yi, Mi-Eun Jin, Ga-Hyun Hwang

Page range: 106-120

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Abstract

Two provenances – Mount Baekdusan near Sino-Korean border and Kyushu of southwest Japan – are well known for Korean prehistoric obsidian artifacts. We examined the mineralogical and geochemical characteristics of the Baekdusan obsidians and the Kyushu obsidians. Though obsidians are of glassy material, microlites are easily found in the host matrix. Fe-oxides are the most abundant microlite phase, with a lesser amount of clinopyroxene, feldspar, and biotite. It is notable that the texture and chemical composition of the microlites in the Baekdusan obsidians are quite different from those in the Kyushu obsidians. Clinopyroxene in the Baekdusan obsidians occurs as oikocryst enclosing smaller Fe-oxides, and has the composition of hedenbergite to augite. On the other hand, clinopyroxene in the Kyushu obsidians is compositionally of clinoferrosilite, and shows intergrowth and/or overgrowth textures with Fe-oxides. Feldspar microlites in the Baekdusan obsidians are generally of sanidine to anorthoclase, whereas those in the Kyushu obsidians of oligoclase. Biotite microlites are often found in the Kyushu obsidians, but absent in the Baekdusan obsidians. Also, there exist prominent geochemical contrasts between the Baekdusan obsidians and the Kyushu obsidians. At the similar SiO2 range of 74 to 78 wt.% the host glasses of the Baekdusan obsidians have higher contents of TiO2, total FeO, K2O, Nb, Hf, Zr, Ta, Y and rare earth elements (REEs) than those of the Kyushu obsidians. The overall mineralogical and geochemical contrasts for the Baekdusan and Kyushu obsidians seem to reflect different parental magma composition and crystallization environment. This distinction can be used to establish the provenance of the obsidian artifacts from the prehistoric sites in the Korean Peninsula as well as contiguous areas such as China, Japan, and Russia.

Open Access April 20, 2019

Obsidian Distribution of the Northern Patagonian Forest Area and Neighboring Sectors during the Late Holocene (Neuquén Province, Argentina)

Alberto E. Pérez, Martin Giesso, Michael D. Glascock

Page range: 121-136

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Abstract

Analysis of 519 obsidian artifacts (pebbles, debitage, cores and small bifaces) by nondestructive X-ray fluorescence from forests and steppes of southern Lanín National Park in the northern Patagonian Andean region, from Lácar (chemical group QU/AP), Lolog (CP-LL 1), Filo Hua-Hum (FHH), Paillakura (Pk, former unknown 1 group), Meliquina (MQ, former unknown group 2) and Yuco (YC) sources. Neutron activation analysis was applied to 29 of the artifacts. We identified for the first time the presence of obsidian from distant Covunco (PC1) in the center of Neuquén. This paper is the first English language publication of our ongoing, ten-year-long research. In accordance with previous work, but using other analytical techniques, the most frequently used sources during the late Holocene remain CP/LL 1 and Pk, here we add YC, mainly by the incorporation of new sites recently surveyed in the islands and the coast of Lake Lácar, next to its source. Another result consistent with previous work is the absence of obsidian from Mendoza and Chilean sources; therefore, we suggest these obsidians circulate just to the east and northeast, allowing us to discuss issues of human territoriality during the Late Holocene.

Open Access April 25, 2019

A Compositional Study (pXRF) of Early Holocene Obsidian Assemblages from Cyprus, Eastern Mediterranean

Theodora Moutsiou

Page range: 155-166

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Abstract

This paper presents the results of the geochemical characterisation of complete obsidian assemblages dating to the Early Aceramic Neolithic (8200–6900 Cal BC) and located in Cyprus, eastern Mediterranean. Obsidian artefacts have over the years been recovered from a number of Early Holocene archaeological sites on the island of Cyprus. As there are no obsidian sources on Cyprus, the presence of obsidian island-wide indicates long-distance sea transport/distribution, central Anatolia usually considered as the main supplying region. Portable XRF technology (X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry) was applied to determine numbers of obsidian sources represented in complete archaeological assemblages and address research questions concerning the social landscape Cyprus was part of during the Early Holocene, a time of significant change in the broader eastern Mediterranean region.

Open Access April 20, 2019

Obsidian Sourcing and Characterization in the Celebes Region: An Initial Interpretation on the “Celebes Seafaring People”

Leee Anthony M. Neri

Page range: 167-179

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Abstract

The peopling of Island Southeast Asia is told through the Austronesian migration theory. During the Neolithic Period (ca. 6000–5000 BP), the Austronesians entered the Philippines altering the cultural landscape and heralding the beginning of the Neolithic. The Austronesian people continued expanding through Island Southeast Asia, the Pacific, and as far as Madagascar. It is the most influential multiregional archaeological theory in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Region. Although archaeologists, as a whole, generally support this theory, the operations governing the Austronesian migration is still subject to intense debate. Theories suggest that migration is not as straightforward as commonly presented. In spite of their movement towards the Pacific, some Austronesian population stayed in the Celebes area and may have developed a close-knit exchange system with their neighbors powered by sophisticated ancient maritime technology and shared cultural affiliations. This paper calls this maritime network as the “Celebes Seafaring People.” The “Celebes Seafaring People” hypothesis is the first study to focus on a smaller aspect of a much larger theory, allowing a clearer perspective on the early cultures of this Region. Currently, the hypothesis encompasses three island groups: Northern Mindanao, Philippines; Sabah, Malaysia; and Talaud Islands, Indonesia. This is an initial interpretation of the “Celebes Seafaring People” hypothesis through geochemical analysis of obsidian found in the island groups in the Celebes Region. These group of people may have a complex maritime exchange network and share the same cultural affiliation during the Neolithic Period. Further investigation must done to substantiate such theoretical interpretation.

Special Issue on Unlocking Sacred Landscapes: Digital Humanities and Ritual Space, edited by Giorgos Papantoniou, Apostolos Sarris, Christine E. Morris & Athanasios K. Vionis

Open Access May 4, 2020

Digital Humanities and Ritual Space: A Reappraisal

Giorgos Papantoniou, Apostolos Sarris, Christine E. Morris, Athanasios K. Vionis

Page range: 598-614

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Abstract

In this editorial article for the Special Issue on Unlocking Sacred Landscapes: Digital Humanities and Ritual Space , we introduce the applicability of digital humanities to the study of ritual space. The Issue focuses on digital approaches both to ritual space and to artefacts relating to ritual practice and cult. The terms ritual and cult are used broadly to include sanctuaries, temples and churches, as well as the domestic and funerary spheres of life. We include contributions with a strong methodological focus on computational developments, digitisation processes and spatial analyses. Although the main focus of the Unlocking Sacred Landscapes (UnSaLa) Research Network is the Mediterranean region, we have also encouraged colleagues working in other areas of the world to contribute to this volume, with a view to stimulating wider methodological dialogues and comparative approaches. The chronological span ranges from prehistory to the recent past, and includes cultural heritage management.

Open Access September 26, 2019

Patterns of Visibility, Intervisibility and Invisibility at Bronze Age Apesokari (Crete)

Sylviane Déderix

Page range: 187-203

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Abstract

Tholos A at Apesokari (south-central Crete, Greece) was constructed on a sloping ledge of bedrock, overlooking the Mesara Plain below. Such an inconvenient topographic setting makes Tholos A an unusual example in the corpus of Minoan circular tombs, which were more commonly built on flatter ground. The builders seem to have cared greatly about placing Tholos A precisely at this location, even at the risk of jeopardizing the stability of its circular chamber. Furthermore, due to limited space availability, the annex rooms of Tholos A had to be built at a higher level on the bedrock, resulting in an architectural configuration unparalleled in other circular tombs. This paper addresses the question of why this particular location was chosen for the construction of Tholos A. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) are used to examine the possibility that concerns related to visibility, intervisibility or invisibility may have played a role in the decision to build Tholos A at this particular spot. Five potential scenarios are formulated and tested to assess whether the tomb may have been placed with the intention of maximizing its visibility and ensuring (or, to the contrary, preventing) intervisibility with specific features in the local landscape.

Open Access July 23, 2019

Palaepaphos: Unlocking the Landscape Context of the Sanctuary of the Cypriot Goddess

Maria Iacovou

Page range: 204-234

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Abstract

The cult centre of Palaepaphos was in continuous use since the construction of its megalithic temenos in the Late Bronze Age, but the new political role which the sanctuary was made to perform in the Hellenistic and Roman periods has supressed its original identity. From the 3rd c. BC, when the citystates of the island were abolished by Ptolemy Soter, to the end of the 4th c. AD, when pilgrim visitations and state-endorsed festivals were gradually abandoned under the growing impact of Christianity, the abode of the Cypriot goddess served the colonial politics of the Ptolemaic kingdom and the Roman Empire, respectively. The Palaepaphos Urban Landscape Project (PULP) has shown that the recovery of the sanctuary’s millennium-long primary role depends on the recovery of the almost invisible landscape of its founding polity and the region’s associated settlement structure. With the use of geospatial analyses and advanced documentation and imaging technologies, PULP has been building a diachronic model of the urban structure of the ancient polity and a site distribution model of the Paphos hydrological basin. Current results have unlocked the significance of the sanctuary’s spatial location in relation to a long-lost gateway to the sea that was the foundation kernel of Ancient Paphos.

Open Access July 30, 2019

Storyways: Visualising Saintly Impact in a North Atlantic Maritime Landscape

Sarah Jane Gibbon, James Moore

Page range: 235-262

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Abstract

This paper presents a new methodological approach and theorising framework which visualises intangible landscapes. The Cult of Saint Magnus of Orkney (martyred c.AD1117 and canonised c.1135) is presented as a case study to demonstrate how spatial and temporal veneration can be explored in the landscape. The transferability of this methodology extends to any multi-source study where memories link to landscape features (past or present). St Magnus dedications, altars and church furnishings in Scandinavia and Britain demonstrate his international recognition, but aside from three Magnus dedicated churches, little is known of his veneration within Orkney. By using GIS to map archaeological, onomastic, folkloric, historic and hagiographic evidence of veneration we have visualised the impact of the Cult of Magnus since martyrdom to recent times for the first time. Furthermore, by visually differentiating between sources, we’ve distinguished the variability and variety of evidence, thus identifying concentrated pockets of veneration through time. Additionally, by linking evidence locations, we have identified ‘remembered’ routeways – storyways. In doing so, we have mapped the impact of Magnus as a saint, his value to particular communities and his continuing influence.

Open Access July 30, 2019

New Perspectives on the Sanctuary of Aesculapius in Nora (Sardinia): From Photogrammetry to Visualizing and Querying Tools

Filippo Carraro, Alessandra Marinello, Daniele Morabito, Jacopo Bonetto

Page range: 263-273

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Abstract

The ritual space of the Sanctuary of Aesculapius in Nora (Sardinia) is the main focus of a recent archaeological campaign led by the Cultural Heritage Department of the University of Padova. A partnership with 3DOM research group (Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Trento) has offered new opportunities for a digital investigation of the site. The aim of the project is to map and visualize the sanctuary with methodologies enabling different users to engage with the site in new ways. They offer different web tools for exploring, understanding and interacting with the site, by focusing on 3D modelling, semantic enrichment and the contextualization of digital records. The entire site of Nora has been surveyed by a drone, which produced a digital model of the peninsula. A number of outputs have been used for different scales of visualization and a range of purposes: an open source multi-resolution web renderer is used to navigate the point cloud, labelled using a system of bounding boxes. At the same time it provides access to a 2.5D model of each building. Plugins in QGIS are used to produce extrusions of any mapped feature, gaining height values from the point cloud, and attributes from the shapefile. Photogrammetric models of single ritual artifacts can be located in their own context and be displayed using 3D web renderers.

Open Access July 30, 2019

Archaeoacoustic Research of Ljubostinja and Naupara Medieval Monastic Churches

Zorana Đorđević, Dragan Novković

Page range: 274-283

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Abstract

The overall experience of religious practice is significantly affected by the acoustical properties of temples. Divine service is the most important act in the Orthodox Church, which equally demands intelligibility of speech for preaching and as well as adequate acoustics for Byzantine chanting as a form of a song-prayer. In order to better understand and contribute to unlocking the role of sound in these historical sacral spaces, this paper explores the acoustics of two well-preserved Orthodox churches, from Ljubostinja and Naupara monastery, built in the last building period of medieval Serbia (1371–1459). These represent two types of the Morava architectural style – triconch combined with a developed and compressed inscribed cross, respectively. Using EASERA software, we measured the impulse response for two sound source positions – in the altar and in the southern chanting apse, as the main points from which the Orthodox service is carried out. Thus obtained acoustic parameters (RT, EDT, C50 and STI) were further analysed, pointing out the differences in experiencing sound between naos and narthex, as well as how the position of the sound source influenced the experience of sound. Finally, we compared the results with previous archaeoacoustic research of the churches from the same building period.

Open Access September 24, 2019

The Shrines of Gadir (Cadiz, Spain) as References for Navigation. GIS Visibility Analysis

Natalia López-Sánchez, Ana Mª Niveau-de-Villedary y Mariñas, Juan Ignacio Gómez-González

Page range: 284-308

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Abstract

This work analyses the influence of the visibility factor on the configuration of the archaic landscape of the Phoenician city of Gadir (Cadiz, Southern Spain) using the three shrines mentioned by classic sources as a reference. Theoretical or cumulative viewshed analyses are the methods used to investigate the visibility relationships each of the shrines has with the sea and the surrounding territory, as well as with each other. Based on these analyses a series of theoretical interpretations regarding the function of these shrines as references for navigation in Antiquity are established.

Open Access August 19, 2019

The Acoustics of Contiones, or How Many Romans Could Have Heard Speakers

Kamil Kopij, Adam Pilch

Page range: 340-349

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Abstract

Contiones – assemblies during which important Roman politicians discussed the laws proposed at the People’s Assemblies as well as candidates for the offices and presented their opinions to the Roman people – are considered by some scholars as one of the central institutions and rituals of the Roman Republic. Considering the role contiones played in the political life of the Roman Republic, we can ask how many Romans participated in them. In our paper we present results of acoustic analyses of two places at the Forum Romanum that we know were platforms for speakers at contiones : the Rostra and the podium of the Temple of Castores. The main goal of our study was to establish the maximum number of participants that could have heard speeches inteligibly. To do that we used a 3D model of Forum Romanum considering not only the geometry but also the acoustic parameters of materials used to construct the rostra and adjacent constructions. Based on the sound power level of a speaker and possible noise sources, on which the recipients were exposed to, we established areas where speeches could have been heard and understood. This in turn allowed us to estimate the maximum number of recipients.

Open Access September 24, 2019

Space as the Stage: Understanding the Sacred Landscape Around the Early Celtic Hillfort of the Glauberg

Axel G. Posluschny, Ruth Beusing

Page range: 365-382

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Abstract

The Early ‘Celtic’ hillfort of the Glauberg in Central Germany, some 40 km northeast of Frankfurt, is renowned for its richly furnished burials and particularly for a wholly preserved sandstone statue of an Early Iron Age chief, warrior or hero with a peculiar headgear – one of the earliest life-size figural representations north of the Alps. Despite a long history of research, the basis for the apparent prosperity of the place (i.e., of the people buried here) is still debated, as is the meaning of the settlement site as part of its surrounding landscape. The phenomenon known as ‘princely sites’ is paralleled in the area north and west of the Alps, though each site has a unique set of characteristics. This paper focusses on investigations and new excavations that put the Glauberg with its settlement, burial and ceremonial features into a wider landscape context, including remote sensing approaches (geophysics and LiDAR) as well as viewshed analyses which define the surrounding area based on the Glauberg itself and other burial mounds on the mountains in its vicinity.

Open Access October 5, 2019

Cult and Crisis: A GIS Approach to the Sacred Landscape of Hellenistic Attica

Constanze Graml, Manuel Hunziker, Katharina Vukadin

Page range: 383-395

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Abstract

From a political point of view, 3 rd century BCE Athens represents a shattered unity. Parts of the Athenian countryside and even the city itself were occupied by foreign troops. This loss of control affected the city’s political, economic, social, cultural, and religious life. Since Cleisthenic times, relations between political units and religious communities had become institutionalised through specific cults. Other cult places of relevance to the larger community and therefore with a catchment area that exceeded a deme, e.g. Eleusis, were also affected, as they lay within the occupied territories. This partial inaccessibility of the countryside risked the disruption of religious duties. The project “Cult and Crisis: The Sacred Landscape of Attica and its Correlation to Political Topography” aims to identify potentially affected cult places with no limitations regarding their possible catchment area by analysing their placement in relation to foreign military bases. Alterations in cult practice can plausibly be detected in changes ranging from cessation to the rerouting of ritual movement or the establishment of substitute cult places. As these “solutions” rarely feature in written sources, our GIS-based approach will focus on material remains from sanctuaries. Although an object’s use for ritual practice cannot be deduced with certainty, the distribution of finds certainly attests to human activity. This contribution presents a trial of this approach, taking the Sounion area as its case study.

Open Access November 4, 2019

Modelling Antiquity. Surveying the Private Areas of the Episcopal Palace, Side. Turkey

Moisés Hernández Cordero, Andreas Pülz

Page range: 396-415

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Abstract

The use of digital techniques is often applied today by archaeologists in the field to get quick and reliable 3D surveys for their research. 3D models and reconstructions are the focus for the use of these techniques. The aim of this paper is to present the methodology employed during the 2018 season, and its combination with that from 2016 on the private areas of the bishop’s residence of the Episcopal Palace in the ancient city of Side, Turkey. This paper will focus on the data acquisition process, accuracy of the survey, errors and solutions as well as the workflow-process of the data. The aim is to present a useful workflow to combine surveys at a maximum level of accuracy with already completed surveys. A Total Station (TS) survey, Global Positioning System (GPS) Real Time Kinetics (RTK) survey and Structure from Motion (SfM) are among the techniques used to compile the information later exported into a Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Geographic Information System (GIS) environment. Eventually, viable applications of the data created with such methods that help to formulate a new hypothesis for the ritual and non-ritual areas will be shown: plans, 3D models, digital elevation models (DEM) and orthophotos.

Open Access November 1, 2019

Recording and Reconstructing the Sacred Landscapes of Sicilian Naxos

Jari Pakkanen, Maria Costanza Lentini, Apostolos Sarris, Esko Tikkala, Meropi Manataki

Page range: 416-433

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Abstract

In recent years, an on-going project investigating the urban landscape of Naxos has surveyed and produced several new digital reconstructions of the settlement’s simple non-peripteral temples, most with highly decorative roofs. Three Archaic sacred buildings of Sicilian Naxos are used to demonstrate different approaches to recording the remains and reconstructing their architectural features. This work reflects changes in digital strategies over the past ten years. Tempietto H is a small shrine located outside the city’s boundaries and the site is currently inaccessible, so its reconstruction is based on excavation documentation and roof terracottas. The visible half of Tempietto C was documented using three-dimensional line-drawing with total stations and photogrammetry; the back-filled south-western part was surveyed with ground penetrating radar. Temple B is the largest sacred structure in Naxos. A geophysical survey gives new data on the eastern extent of the sanctuary. The area has been recorded with handheld and aerial photography to create a three-dimensional model of the sanctuary. A new orthogonal grid of the city was established circa 470 BCE and a rectangular base was placed in the south-east corner of every crossroad. These bases were the starting point for the plan, and their interpretation as altars converts the entire urban plan into a sacred landscape.

Open Access December 31, 2019

The Performances at the Theatre of the Pythion in Gortyna, Crete. Virtual Acoustics Analysis as a Support for Interpretation

Maria Cristina Manzetti

Page range: 434-443

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Abstract

The location of the so-called “small” Roman theatre of Gortyna (Crete), precisely at the back of the temple dedicated to Apollo Pythios , suggests a clear correlation of this monument with religious rituals. We may suppose that the theatre was used in particular during the Ludi Apollinares ( Pythia ), namely games and a festival dedicated to the God Apollo (held for the first time in Rome in 212 BC) or during the iso-Olympic agones as witnessed by the epigraphic sources of the imperial age. However, we have to consider also the possibility that the “small” theatre of Gortyna could have housed civic ceremonies or other activities related to the life of the Koinon ton Kreton , the federal assembly of all the Cretan cities which had its seat during the imperial times right in the space of the sanctuary. This paper aims to verify the typology of performances and activities that could take place in the theatre of the Pythion (namely if it was more suitable for music or speech) through virtual acoustics analysis. The study of the acoustics’ quality has provided significant support to formulate hypotheses about the primary function of the theatre of the Pythion at Gortyna.

Open Access December 13, 2019

Visualising Ostia’s Processional Landscape Through a Multi-Layered Computational Approach: Case Study of the Cult of the Magna Mater

Katherine A. Crawford

Page range: 444-467

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Abstract

Ostia, the ancient port of Rome, had a rich religious landscape. How processional rituals further contributed to this landscape, however, has seen little consideration. This is largely due to a lack of evidence that attests to the routes taken by processional rituals. The present study aims to address existing problems in studying processions by questioning what factors motivated processional movement routes. A novel computational approach that integrates GIS, urban network analysis, and agent-based modelling is introduced. This multi-layered approach is used to question how spectators served as attractors in the creation of a processional landscape using Ostia’s Campo della Magna Mater as a case study. The analysis of these results is subsequently used to gain new insight into how a greater processional landscape was created surrounding the sanctuary of the Magna Mater.

Open Access December 23, 2019

The Contribution of Digital Data to the Understanding of Ritual Landscapes. The Case of Calicantone (Sicily)

Francesca Buscemi, Marianna Figuera

Page range: 468-483

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Abstract

P. Militello (University of Catania) and A. M. Sammito (Superintendence of Cultural Heritage, Ragusa) directed excavations around a necropolis of at least 90 rock-cut tombs at Calicantone (RG) in southeastern Sicily, which until then had only partially been investigated. As well as providing new archaeological data about the corresponding village in terms of its area, the research team also discovered the remains of an isolated bi-apsidal hut dated to the late Sicilian EBA (XVII th –XVI th century B.C.). The hut is presumed as a funerary building primarily intended for the preparation of corpses for burial. Its position, directly between the village and the necropolis, demonstrates its crucial role in the sacral landscape, while spatial distribution analyses indicate that other commemorative rituals were conducted in specific spaces in, and around, the actual tombs. The paper presents a reconstruction of the ancient cultural landscape highlighting the possible passageway that connected life in the village with death in the necropolis, through the interceding funerary hut, and the location of potential ritual areas in the necropolis. Digital spatial datasets and visualization tools (e.g. topographic maps, shaded Digital Elevation Model (DEM), visibility analyses, 3D virtual models, animations, etc.) proved to be fundamental in the reconstruction of funerary activities.

Open Access December 17, 2019

Walking your Way to Death. Exploring the Relation Between the Location of Mycenaean Chamber Tombs and Roads in the Argolid

Kalliopi Efkleidou

Page range: 484-504

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Abstract

A persistent issue with the study of Late Bronze Age (ca. 1600–1100 BCE) chamber tombs in Mainland Greece remains our limited understanding of the factors that governed the choice of location for their construction. Mee and Cavanagh (1990) examined various parameters, such as religious beliefs, distance from settlement, the tombs’ use as territorial markers or relation to roads. They remained, however, inconclusive. The present study revisits this theme, but focuses on one of the factors formerly discussed, that is the relation of the tombs’ locations to roads. As the most extensive record of Mycenaean roads is preserved at the settlement of Mycenae in the Argolid and its hinterland, this site is considered to be the best case-study for analysis. In order to ascertain the significance of roads on the locations chosen for the chamber tombs, this paper builds a methodological approach that makes use of GIS-based mobility analysis and historical cartography. The analysis has shown that, at least at Mycenae, issues of accessibility to the tombs did not play as crucial role as the actual performance of rituals such as the funerary procession. It also sheds light on the form funerary processions probably took at Mycenae and on common notions of wheeled traffic use for the transfer of the dead to their tomb.

Open Access December 31, 2019

Interlocking Networks and the Sacred Landscape of Hellenistic Northern Etruria: Capturing Social and Geographic Entanglement Through Social Network Analysis

Raffaella Da Vela

Page range: 505-518

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Abstract

The late Hellenistic period is a time of deep entanglement, interconnectedness and complexity. The breakdown of local political systems and the unification of economic spaces had strong repercussions on the perception and expression of several aspects of the cultural identities of local communities. Rapid waves of change can be observed in local religious identities and in the Etruscan sacred landscape: cult buildings were destroyed, sacred places abandoned or replaced by residential areas, and new organisational forms of managing cults appeared; Latin names and new iconographies were given to traditional deities in public religious buildings dedicated to the official religion, while private and popular worshipping polarized around salvation cults. Changes in the sacred landscape regarded both topographic aspects, such as the visibility of cult sites and their connections to settlements, as well as social aspects, such as the patronage of sacred buildings. This paper proposes to employ a relational approach in order to understand changes in the sacred landscape. It analyzes the geographic and social components of the Etruscan sacred landscape by means of Social Network Analysis (SNA), and it does so by looking at the landscape in its entanglement to the archaeological and epigraphic record between 350 and 80 BCE.

Open Access December 31, 2019

An Exploratory Spatial Analysis of the Churches in the Southern Mani Peninsula, Greece

Rebecca M. Seifried, Tuna Kalaycı

Page range: 519-539

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Abstract

The Mani Peninsula is home to hundreds of Orthodox Christian churches that were built within the last millennium. As in other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean countryside, the topological relationship between churches and settlements is a critical factor in understanding the significance of the sacred landscape. Many churches are situated in the central part of a village or on its very edge, but others – what are referred to as “outlying churches” or exokklisia – are built at great distances away. In this paper, we make the first attempt to assess the spatial relationship between the spaces where people worshipped (the churches) and the spaces where they lived (the settlements) at a regional scale, focused specifically on the Middle Byzantine period and later (mid-9th century CE to the present day). Comparing these patterns across the Byzantine, Ottoman, and Modern periods allows us to frame Mani’s sacred infrastructure within a changing, diachronic perspective. The results point to a change in the topological relationship between church and settlement that is best described as the “nucleation of the sacred landscape.”

Open Access December 31, 2019

The Contribution of ‘Total Environment’ Reconstructions in Interpreting Ancient Greek Experience of Ritual Spaces

Efrosyni Boutsikas

Page range: 540-552

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Abstract

The temple of Epikourean Apollo in Bassae has long been suspected to have been constructed with astronomical considerations, aimed at influencing ancient religious experience. The study presented here involves the use of Virtual Reality software to reconstruct the temple in its original position and orientation, combined with an accurate reconstruction of the sun’s position during the Classical period. The aim is to test the hypothesis of deliberate solar considerations associated with the temple’s east entrance. The reconstruction also discusses the application of Virtual Reality Models (VRM) and their potential impact on understanding ancient spatial movement and memory, emotionality and cognition. In addition, it explores the possibility of ancient natural light manipulation in enhancing experience of religious architecture. This paper not only presents the first VRM of Apollo’s temple, but also a model with an accurate reconstruction of the sun’s position at specific moments in the year. The importance of such reconstructions in understanding religious experience is exemplified. A great deal is revealed about the proposed solar effect in relation to human observation, and the connotations of such an effect in specific religious contexts. This study could facilitate discussion on the contribution of digital technology in understanding ancient Greek ritual experience.

Open Access December 31, 2019

“Sacra Tharrhica Project”: Preliminary Results of 3D Virtual Reconstruction of the Punic-Roman Sacred Areas of Tharros, Sardinia

Francesco Belfiori, Stefano Floris, Melania Marano

Page range: 553-562

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Abstract

The “Sacra Tharrhica Project” was started by the University of Bologna in cooperation with the University of Cagliari in 2017. The aim is to obtain a 3D virtual reconstruction of all temple structures of the Punic settlement of Tharros on the central west coast of Sardinia, starting from a systematic architectural and archaeological study of the Punic and Roman phases of the buildings. The project has firstly focused on the “Monumental Temple” or “Doric half-columns Temple”. This Punic sacred area was probably monumentalized between the late 4 th and 3 rd centuries B.C. After the Roman conquest, it was rebuilt between the 1 st century B.C. and the 1 st century A.D.

Open Access December 31, 2019

Records and Transformations of Memories in the Cultural Landscape of Idomeni (Kilkis, Northern Greece)

Stamatis Chatzitoulousis, Vlasis Vlasidis, Apostolos Sarris, Kalliopi Efkleidou, Eleni Kotjabopoulou, Nikos Papadopoulos, Nasos Argyriou, Jamie Donati, Meropi Manataki, Pedro Trapero-Fernandez

Page range: 563-585

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Abstract

Following recent excavations and geophysical prospection at Idomeni in the Kilkis prefecture of Northern Greece, this paper attempts to reconstruct through digital means, the tangible and intangible vestiges of historical episodes that come together to form multiple narratives of a diachronically terra incognita site, gradually unlocking its hidden secrets. The digital documentation and processing, with the use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS), of the spatial remains associated with historical episodes demonstrate the ways in which space at Idomeni was used within a multifaceted, diachronic framework. It is a place that is constantly being transformed over the past 7000 years from a seemingly “peaceful” agricultural community during the Neolithic period to a burial ground for a still invisible Middle Byzantine settlement, and finally, as a place of violence having been one of the battlefields of the First World War. The story of Idomeni has only recently been concluded as the theatre of a dramatic influx of modern refugees. Thus, the “multilayered” identity of a mnemonic place with various representations of the past unfolds: on one hand the distant eras, such as the still unknown Neolithic and Middle Byzantine period, and on the other, the relatively recent “traumatic” (war-related) past. Within the specific historical context of the First World War, this paper discusses the management of memories of locals and non-locals, e.g. the disappearance of entire settlements, or the emergence of new toponyms related to the protagonists and their actions during the war in the area of Idomeni remaining in the memory of locals today.

Open Access December 31, 2019

The Addaura Cave: Dance and Rite in Mesolithic Sicily

Paola Budano

Page range: 586-597

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Abstract

The Addaura Cave, located on Monte Pellegrino – Palermo, Sicily, is known for its exquisite engravings dating between the end of the Epigravettian and the Mesolithic periods. The frieze shows a group of men arranged in a circle around two very controversial figures which have generated much scholarly debate. So far, the purely choreographic and musical aspect has been little investigated. From the examination of the position of legs and arms and the presence of particular ornaments it is possible to deduce that these figures are engaged in a dance whose purpose is most probably linked to the ceremonial sphere. The purpose of the present contribution is to return to the concreteness of gesture related to dance, describing the modalities and the possible rhythmic implications.

Regular articles

Open Access April 25, 2019

Collaborative Approaches to Archaeology Programming and the Increase of Digital Literacy Among Archaeology Students

Peter J Cobb, John H Sigmier, Petra M Creamer, Emily R French

Page range: 137-154

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Abstract

Digital methods provide archaeologists with ever-increasing opportunities to collect more data about the past in new formats. These larger evidentiary datasets, in turn, help us to address questions about the human past with increasing precision. To take full advantage of these opportunities, archaeologists must develop digital literacy skills and learn how to lead digital projects. Here, we describe seven digitally-based projects we have undertaken at the University of Pennsylvania in order to create new tools for archaeological data collection and sharing, as well as to test collaborative models for the digital humanities programming process. In these projects, archaeology students work directly with engineering students. Through this interface, the students from both areas gain valuable transdisciplinary experience while experimenting with new ways to accomplish programming goals and to collect archaeological data. The learning potential for these students was a key motivation for our initiative. Our projects have already led to several websites and digital applications that are available as open source downloads. We present our impressions of this collaborative process with the goal of encouraging other archaeologists to form similar digital humanities partnerships.

Open Access May 29, 2019

The Archaeological Impacts of Metal Detecting

Edward B. Banning

Page range: 180-186

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Abstract

In a comment on two recent articles on the archaeological impacts of metal detecting, this paper advocates clearer and more valid measures of those impacts and more nuanced classification of the legal and cultural environments in which metal detecting takes place. The need to rely on open-source, online data for transnational analysis makes the former challenging but not impossible. Using the example of Canada, the paper shows that jurisdictional and other complexities make simple “permissive” and “restrictive/prohibitive” dichotomies unhelpful, and suggests using multivariate analysis that accounts for such factors as presumption of ownership, locations of metal detecting, availability of finds reporting, and whether heritage legislation concerns artifacts or only sites. This is essential for development of sound, evidence-based policy on the metal-detecting hobby.

Open Access July 30, 2019

Polish, Silesian and Local Cloth Seals from Excavations in Gdańsk, Poland

Łukasz Połczyński, Magdalena Przymorska-Sztuczka

Page range: 309-339

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Abstract

This article presents a collection of early modern cloth seals revealed during an excavation in Gdańsk (Poland). Our aim is to present a collection of an often-neglected category of artefacts. These are cloth seals from towns and villages located along the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Habsburg Monarchy border. Tracking the import of cloth to Gdańsk (the most important commercial centre on the Baltic Sea at that time) based on the analysis of the origin of textile seals is crucial as it allows us, in some sense, to reconstruct the cloth market of mid-seventeenth century Gdańsk.

Open Access August 19, 2019

A Tale of Two CDs: Archaeological Analysis of Full-Motion Video Formats in Two PC Engine/TurboGrafx-16 Games

John Aycock, Andrew Reinhard, Carl Therrien

Page range: 350-364

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Abstract

As an example of how the archaeology of modern/contemporary media can be conducted, we examine the technology behind artifacts with cultural relevance in modern society: video games. In particular, we look at two game artifacts from the PC Engine/TurboGrafx-16, a game console produced from 1987–1994. A 1× CD-ROM drive could be added on to the console, with a corresponding increase in the amount of data a game could access, and some games took advantage of this capability to include full-motion video (FMV). This digital excavation report details the FMV formats of two such games along with the methodology used to reverse engineer the formats and verify the correctness of the analysis.

About this journal

Open Archaeology is a peer-reviewed, electronic-only journal that publishes original, high-quality research on all aspects of archaeology. The journal encompasses novel, interdisciplinary approaches to archaeological data including archaeological science, theory and interpretation as well as archaeological heritage management and promotion.

The aim of Open Archaeology is to become a premier source of knowledge and a worldwide-recognized platform of exchange for scientists, without any geographical or temporal restrictions.

Scope of the journal includes, but is not restricted to:

World Archaeology - discoveries and research
Archaeological science
Theory and interpretation in archaeology
Archaeological heritage preservation and management

Journal Partners

Call for papers

Can You See Me? Putting the 'Human' Back Into 'Human-Plant' Interactions
Coordinating Editors: María Martín-Seijo, Dawn Elise Mooney, Marian Berihuete Azorín and María Laura Ciampagna
Digital Religioscapes: Current Methodologies and Novelties in the Analysis of Sacr(aliz)ed Spaces
Coordinating Editors: Anaïs Lamesa, Asuman Lätzer-Lasar
Engaging the Public, Heritage and Educators through Material Culture Research
Coordinating Editors: Katherine Anne Wilson, Christina Antenhofer, Thomas Pickles
Scales of Interaction in the Bronze and Iron Age Central Mediterranean
Coordinating Editors: Emily Holt, Davide Schirru
Archaeology of Migration: Moving Beyond Historical Paradigms
Coordinating Editors: Catharine Judson, Hagit Nol
Bricks Under the Scope: Microscopic and Macroscopic Approaches to the Study of Earthen Architecture
Coordinating Editors: Marta Lorenzon, Moritz Kinzel, Benjamín Cutillas-Victoria
Ancient Cultural Routes: Past Transportations Infrastructures as a Two-Way Interaction between Society and Environment
Coordinating Editors: Francesca Fulminante, Francesca Mazzilli, Franziska Engelbogen
Microhistory and Archaeology
Coordinating Editor: Juan Antonio Quirós Castillo
Past Sounds: New Perspectives in the Field of Archaeoacoustics
Coordinating Editors: Margarita Díaz-Andreu, Neemias Santos da Rosa

Completed Topical Issues

Challenging Digital Archaeology
Coordinating Editors: Jeremy Huggett and Davide Tanasi
Advances in Arctic Archaeology (Part I, II)
Coordinating Editors: Peter Whitridge and Max Friesen
Aspects of non-professional metal detecting in Europe
Coordinating Editors: Pieterjan Deckers, Michael Lewis and Suzie Thomas
Understanding diversity in Neolithic Houses and Households
Coordinating Editors: Joanna Pyzel, Penny Bickle, Ben Chan, Lech Czerniak, Christina Tsoraki
Uncovering Historical Routes for Sustainable Mobility: Methods, Tools and Case Studies
Coordinating Editors: Cinzia Tavernari and Carlo Citter
Portable XRF in Archaeology and Museum Studies
Coordinating Editors: Davide Tanasi, Robert Tykot and Andrea Vianello
Exploring Advances in the Use of 3D Models of Objects in Archaeological Research
Coordinating Editor: Barry Molloy
From Line to Colour: Social Context and Visual Communication of Prehistoric Art
Coordinating Editors: Liliana Janik and Simon Kaner
The Danubian Provinces of the Roman Empiree
Coordinating Editor: Mateusz Żmudziński
Unlocking Sacred Landscapes: Digital Humanities and Ritual Space
Coordinating Editors: Giorgos Papantoniou, Apostolos Sarris, Christine E. Morris, Athanasios K. Vionis
Scientific Studies of Obsidian Sources and Trade
Coordinating Editors: Robert H. Tykot, Maria Clara Martinelli, Andrea Vianello
The Black Gold That Came from the Sea. Advances in the Studies of Obsidian Sources and Artifacts of the Central Mediterranean Area (Part I, II)
Coordinating Editors: Franco Italiano, Franco Foresta Martin, Maria Clara Martinelli
Archaeological Practice on Shifting Grounds
Coordinating Editors: Åsa Berggren, Antonia Davidsonach-Walther
Art, Creativity and Automation. Sharing 3D Visualization Practices in Archaeology
Coordinating Editors: Loes Opgenhaffen, Martina Revello Lami, Hayley Mickleburgh
At the Crossroads of the Mediterranean: Malta and the Central Mediterranean During the Roman Period
Coordinating Editors: David Cardona, Davide Tanasi, Robert Brown
Special Issue published in cooperation with the 1st Conference on the EARLY NEOLITHIC of EUROPE (Part I, II)
Coordinating Editors: Ferran Borrell, Ignacio Clemente, Miriam Cubas, Juan J. Ibáñez, Niccolò Mazzucco, Ariadna Nieto, Marta Portillo, Xavier Terradas & Silvia Valenzuela
Special Issue Published in Cooperation with Meso’2020 – Tenth International Conference on the Mesolithic in Europe
Coordinating Editors: Thomas Perrin, Benjamin Marquebielle, Sylvie Philibert, and Nicolas Valdeyron
What is New in the Neolithic? – A Special Issue Dedicated to Lech Czerniak
Coordinating Editors: Joanna Pyzel, Katarzyna Inga Michalak, & Marek Z. Barański
Digital Methods and Typology
Coordinating Editors: Gianpiero Di Maida, Christian Horn, & Stefanie Schaefer-Di Maida