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Language policies and practices across the Baltic: processes, challenges and prospects

Triin Vihalemm / Gabrielle Hogan-Brun
Published Online: 2013-06-01 | DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/eujal-2013-0004

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Abstract

We examine actions taken in the three Baltic states to (re-)establish their national languages in de facto multilingual surroundings. The implementation processes and initial impact of language ideology and language regulation on the language practices and socio-political participation of Soviet-period immigrants and their descendants living in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania are described. In presenting a comparative cross-Baltic overview of language practices we discuss the national differences in connection with citizenship and political participation, population distribution and labour market surroundings. Our empirical data are draw from sociological surveys, population statistics and labour market segregation analyses. We focus on the interaction between regulations, language practices and social structural surroundings asking: How has the national language establishment shaped labour market practices, citizenship and education expectations? And vice versa: What could be the effect of the social surroundings on the formation of the language practices? We conclude that despite their different structural provisions, Estonia and Lithuania face somewhat similar future challenges in terms of creating a culturally more integrated education system. The minority agents when confronted with existing policy requirements have fewer possibilities to produce their own (alternative) solutions since ethnicity or language-driven social marginalization is perceived more as a problem here. In Latvia, the minority representatives seem to have sufficient resources in the private sphere to “slow down” existing state level language requirements, which enables them to create suitable surroundings for the ongoing maintenance of the Latvian-Russian multilingual environment.

Resümee

Artiklis analüüsitakse Balti riikide keelepoliitikaid esimese kahekümne iseseisvusaasta jooksul. Pärast nõuogude okupatsiooni uuesti ülesehitatavate rahvusriikide missiooniks on eesti/läti/leedu keele ja kultuuri säilimine ja arendamine. Kõrvuti selle eesmärgiga on riikide ees teine raske ülesanne – lõimida ühiskonda nõukogude perioodil sisserännanud ja nende järeltulijad – arvukas vene emakeelega elanikkond. Artiklis antakse võrdlev ülevaade peamisest tegevustest riigikeele kehtestamisel ning analüüsitakse poliitilise, demograafilise ning majandusliku keskkonna soodustavat ning takistavat mõju venekeelse elanikkonna keelepraktikate muutumisele, poliitilisele osalusele ja tööturupraktikatele. Analüüsis kasutatakse sotsioloogiliste uuringute ning rahvastikustatistika andmeid ja tööturu segregatsiooni näitajaid. Artikkel keskendub kahele küsimusele. Esiteks – milline on keelepoliitiliste regulatsioonide, keelepraktikate ja sotsiaalse struktuuri omavaheline vastasmõju? Teiseks – kuidas on riigikeele kehtestamise poliitika kujundanud tööturupraktikaid ja vastupidi, milline on ümbritseva sotsiaal-majandusliku keskkonna mõju keelepraktikate kujunemisele? Analüüsist järeldub, et Eesti ja Leedu väljakutsed on sarnased – luua kultuuriliselt lõimitum haridussüsteem selleks, et vältida osa vene kodukeelega noorte marginaliseerumist. Erinevalt Eestist ja Leedust on Läti vene vähemusel tööturul ja erasektoris küllatki tugev positsioon, mis võimaldab riikliku keelepoliitika nõudmisi pehmendada ning nende mõjulepääsu aeglustada, säilitades Läti elanike läti-vene kakskeelsust ja vene keele positsiooni mitteametliku kohaliku keelena.

Pезюме

Мы оцениваем действия, предпринятые в трех странах Балтии для установления их национальных языков в de facto многоязычном окружении. Здесь описаны способы осуществления и изначальное влияние языковой идеологии и языкового регулирования на языковые практики и социально-политическое участие иммигрантов советского периода и их потомков, живущих в Эстонии, Латвии и Литве. Мы опираемся на эмпирическую очевидность, отраженную в социологических исследованиях, статистике народонаселения и анализе сегрегации на рынке труда. Мы концентрируемся на взаимодействии между регулированием, языковыми практиками и социальной средой, задаваясь вопросом: как установление национальных языков сформировало практики рынка труда, ожидания в отношении гражданства и образования? И наоборот: каково может быть влияние социального окружения на формирования языковых практик? Мы приходим к выводу, что несмотря на различные структурные предпосылки, Эстония и Литва столкнулись со схожими вызовами в плане создания более культурно интегрированной системы образования. Здесь меньшинства, сталкиваясь с имеющимися политическими требованиями, имеют меньше возможностей производить свои собственные (альтернативные) решения, поскольку этничность или обусловленная языком социальная маргинализация воспринимается здесь в большей степени как проблема. В Латвии же, по видимому, меньшинства имеют достаточно ресурсов в частной сфере для того, чтобы смягчить существующие языковые требования государства. Tаким образом создается подходящая среда для продолжающегося сохранения латышско-русской многоязычной среды.

Zusammenfassung

Wir untersuchen gewählte Handlungsstränge in den drei baltischen Staaten Estland, Lettland und Litauen zur Wiederherstellung des offiziellen Status und der Funktionalität der jeweiligen Staatssprachen in ihren tatsächlich mehrsprachigen Umgebungen. Wir besprechen nationale Unterschiede im Zusammenhang mit Staatsbürgerschaft und politischer Teilnahme, der Bevölkerungsverteilung und den Arbeitsmarktumgebungen. Im Hinblick auf die Wechselwirkungen zwischen Sprachregelungen, Sprachpraxis und soziostrukturellen Faktoren fragen wir: Wie hat sich die Landesspracheneinrichtung auf die Arbeitsmarktpraxis, Staatsbürgerschaft und Ausbildungserwartungen ausgewirkt? Und umgekehrt: Was könnte die Auswirkung der Sozialumgebungen auf Sprachpraktika sein? Empirisch beziehen wir uns auf soziologische Übersichten, Bevölkerungsstatistiken und Arbeitsmarktsegregationssanalysen.

Resumen

Analizamos las acciones llevadas a cabo en tres repúblicas bálticas para (re)establecer su lengua nacional en entornos multilingües de facto. Se describe el establecimiento e impacto inicial de la ideología lingüística y la regulación lingüística de las prácticas lingüísticas y la participación socio-política de los inmigrantes del periodo soviético y sus descendientes con residencia en Estonia, Latvia y Lituania. Al presentar una visión global comparada de las prácticas lingüísticas a lo largo del Báltico, se analizan las diferencias nacionales en lo relativo a ciudadanía y participación política, distribución de la población y entornos del mercado de trabajo. Nuestros datos empíricos proceden de encuestas sociológicas, estadísticas de población y análisis de segregación del mercado de trabajo. Nos centramos en la interacción entre regulaciones, prácticas lingüísticas y entornos sociales para contestar la siguiente pregunta: ¿De qué forma ha condicionado el sistema de lengua nacional las prácticas del mercado laboral, la ciudadanía y las expectativas educativas? Y viceversa: ¿Cuál puede ser la influencia del entorno social en la formación de las prácticas lingüísticas? Se concluye que, a pesar de sus diferencias en condicionamientos estructurales, Estonia y Lituania se enfrentan a similares retos futuros en términos de creación de un sistema educativo de mayor integración cultural. Cuando los agentes minoritarios tienen que enfrentarse a requisitos derivados de políticas ya en vigor, tienen menos posibilidades de ofrecer sus propias soluciones (alternativas) dado que en estas condiciones la etnicidad o la marginalización social de origen lingüístico se perciben más como problema. En Latvia los representantes de la minoría parecen contar con suficientes recursos en la esfera privada para “ralentizar” los requisitos estatales de nivel lingüístico, lo que les permite crear contextos apropiados para el mantenimiento en el tiempo de entornos multilingües latvio-rusos.

Keywords: Baltic,; language policies and practices,; citizenship,; minorities,; participation.

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About the article

Triin Vihalemm

Gabrielle Hogan-Brun

Published Online: 2013-06-01

Published in Print: 2013-06-01

Citation Information: European Journal of Applied Linguistics, Volume 1, Issue 1, Pages 55–82, ISSN (Online) 2192-953X, ISSN (Print) 2192-9521, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/eujal-2013-0004.

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