Abstract
The speech behaviour in which at least two distinct languages are used in the same conversation (code-switching) is a pervasive feature found in the language produced by fluent bilinguals, particularly when the speakers engage in informal conversation. The multilingual context of South Africa ensures that code-switching is not only a common phenomenon, but that it is probably the most natural speech pattern for presenting multiple identities of self. This study explored the language practices of isiXhosa learners at different stages of an English-medium grade school to determine (a) the stage at which code-switching between isiXhosa and English emerges as a feature of informal speech and (b) the extent to which increased competence in English affects the nature of code-switching which may in turn serve as an indicator of language shift from isiXhosa to English. The study revealed that as early as the Foundation Phase code-switching seems to be a prominent feature of informal speech in certain contexts. More importantly the study revealed that, contrary to expectations, increased competence in English does not necessarily lead to language shift from isiXhosa to English, but rather it leads to more integrated usage of both English and isiXhosa.
Acknowledgements
An earlier version of this article was presented at the annual conference of the Linguistic Society of Southern Africa at the University of the Free State in Bloemfontein, South Africa, in 2012. I am grateful to the participants at this conference for their suggestions encouragement, to two anonymous reviewers for critical comments, and to Babongile Zulu for collecting and transcribing the data. All shortcomings in this work are my responsibility. This research was made possible by generous funding from the Research Committee of Rhodes University.
References
Adendorff, Ralph.1993. Code-switching among Zulu-speaking teachers and their pupils: Its functions and implications for teacher education. Language and Education7. 141–162.10.1080/09500789309541356Search in Google Scholar
Alexander, Neville.2000. English unassailable but unattainable: The dilemma of language policy in South African education (PRAESA Occasional papers 3). Cape Town: PRAESA.Search in Google Scholar
Appel, Rene & PieterMuysken.1987. Language contact and bilingualism. London: Edward Arnold.Search in Google Scholar
Bentahila, Addelali & EirlysDavies.1983. The syntax of Arab-French code-switching. Lingua59. 301–330.10.1016/0024-3841(83)90007-4Search in Google Scholar
Blom, Jan-Petter & JohnGumperz. 1972. Social meaning and structure: Code-switching in Norway. In J.Gumperz & D.Hymes (eds.), Directions in sociolinguistics, 407–434, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Wilson.Search in Google Scholar
Bolonyai, Agnes.1998. In-between languages: Language shift/maintenance in childhood bilingualism. International Journal of Bilingualism2. 21–43.10.1177/136700699800200102Search in Google Scholar
Bolonyai, Agnes.2009. Codeswitching, imperfect acquisition, and attrition. In BarbaraBullock & AlmeidaJacqueline Torribo (eds.), The Cambridge handbook of linguistic code-switching, 253–269. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511576331.016Search in Google Scholar
Coetzee-Van Rooy, Susan. 2012. Flourishing functional multilingualism: Evidence from language repertoires in the Vaal Triangle region. International Journal of the Sociology of Language218. 87–119.10.1515/ijsl-2012-0060Search in Google Scholar
De Klerk, Vivian.2000a. Language shift in Grahamstown: A case study of selected Xhosa-speakers. International Journal of the Sociology of Language146. 87–110.10.1515/ijsl.2000.146.87Search in Google Scholar
De Klerk, Vivian.2000b. To be Xhosa or not to be Xhosa … That is the Question. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development21. 198–215.10.1080/01434630008666401Search in Google Scholar
Finlayson, Rosalie & SarahSlabbert.1997. “We just mix”: Code-switching in a South African township. International Journal of the Sociology of Language125. 65–98.10.1515/ijsl.1997.125.65Search in Google Scholar
Finlayson, Rosalie, KarenCalteaux & CarolMyers-Scotton. 1998. Orderly mixing and accommodation in South African codeswitching. Journal of Sociolinguistics2(3). 395–420.10.1111/1467-9481.00052Search in Google Scholar
Gardner-Chloros, Penelope. 2009. Sociolinguistic factors in code-switching. In BarbaraBullock & AlmeidaJacqueline Torribo (eds.), The Cambridge handbook of linguistic code-switching, 97–113. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511576331.007Search in Google Scholar
Gumperz, John.1982. Discourse strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511611834Search in Google Scholar
Myers-Scotton, Carol. 1993a. Social motivations for codeswitching: Evidence from Africa. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Search in Google Scholar
Myers-Scotton, Carol. 1993b. Duelling languages: Grammatical structure in codeswitching. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Search in Google Scholar
Myers-Scotton, Carol. 1998. A theoretical introduction to the Markedness Model. In CarolMyers-Scotton (ed.), Codes and consequences, 18–38. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Myers-Scotton, Carol. 2006. Multiple voices: An introduction to bilingualism. Oxford: Blackwell.Search in Google Scholar
Prah, Kwesi Kwaa. 2010. Multilingualism in urban Africa: Bane or blessing. Journal of Multicultural Discourse5. 169–182.10.1080/17447143.2010.491916Search in Google Scholar
Ramsay-Brijball, Malini. 1999. Understanding Zulu-English code-switching: A psycho-social perspective. South African Journal of Linguistics17. 161–172.10.1080/10118063.1999.9724532Search in Google Scholar
Rudwick, Stephanie.2008. “Coconuts” and “oreos”: English-speaking Zulu people in a South African township. World Englishes27. 101–116.10.1111/j.1467-971X.2008.00538.xSearch in Google Scholar
Simango, Silvester Ron. 2011. When English meets isiXhosa in the clause: An exploration into the grammar of codeswitching. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies29. 127–134.10.2989/16073614.2011.633361Search in Google Scholar
Slabbert, Sarah & RosalieFinlayson.2000. “I’m a cleva!”: The linguistic makeup of identity in a South African urban environment. International Journal of the Sociology of Language144. 119–136.10.1515/ijsl.2000.144.119Search in Google Scholar
Uys, Dawid & Ondenevan Dulm.2011. The functions of classroom code-switching in the Siyanda District of the Northern Cape. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies29. 67–76.10.2989/16073614.2011.583159Search in Google Scholar
Weinreich, Uriel.1967. Languages in contact: Findings and problems. The Hague: Mouton.Search in Google Scholar
©2015 by De Gruyter Mouton