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Publicly Available Published by De Gruyter January 30, 2016

Microencapsulation technology and applications in added-value functional textiles

  • Boh Podgornik Bojana EMAIL logo and Starešinič Marica
From the journal Physical Sciences Reviews

1 Introduction

1.1 Research and development trends

Microencapsulation is a knowledge-intensive and dynamic research field with an increasing growth of publications. Trends in patent vs. non-patent literature on microencapsulation illustrate the growth of basic research (scientific articles), as well as the fast growth of industrial research, represented in waves of patented inventions (Figure 1).

Fig. 1 Trends in scientific articles vs. patent documents on microencapsulation. Web of Science [1], advanced search: TS = (microcapsule* OR microencapsulat*) AND TS = (textile* OR cloth OR fabric OR garment*). Espacenet [2], advanced search: Title or abstract: (microcapsule* OR microencapsulat*) AND (textile* OR cloth OR fabric OR garment*).
Fig. 1

Trends in scientific articles vs. patent documents on microencapsulation. Web of Science [1], advanced search: TS = (microcapsule* OR microencapsulat*) AND TS = (textile* OR cloth OR fabric OR garment*). Espacenet [2], advanced search: Title or abstract: (microcapsule* OR microencapsulat*) AND (textile* OR cloth OR fabric OR garment*).

Among numerous possible applications fields, microencapsulation offers many opportunities to improve the properties of textiles or to give them new functions.

A bibliometric analysis of scientific articles in the Web of Science [1], and patents in the Espacenet database [2] reveals that the first ideas of applying microcapsules in textiles emerged in the early 1970s, and that the majority of publications on microencapsulation for textile applications remain patents (Figure 2). This emphasises the importance of industrial property rights, and the strong participation of industrial research in the development of added-value functional textiles, invented with microencapsulated active ingredients.

Fig. 2 Trends in scientific articles vs. patent documents on microencapsulation for textiles. Web of Science [1], advanced search: TS = (microcapsule* OR microencapsulat*) AND TS = (textile* OR cloth OR fabric OR garment*). Espacenet [2], advanced search: Title or abstract: (microcapsule* OR microencapsulat*) AND (textile* OR cloth OR fabric OR garment*).
Fig. 2

Trends in scientific articles vs. patent documents on microencapsulation for textiles. Web of Science [1], advanced search: TS = (microcapsule* OR microencapsulat*) AND TS = (textile* OR cloth OR fabric OR garment*). Espacenet [2], advanced search: Title or abstract: (microcapsule* OR microencapsulat*) AND (textile* OR cloth OR fabric OR garment*).

2 Microencapsulation methods and processes of applying microcapsules to textiles

2.1 Microencapsulation methods

The selection of microencapsulation process for added-value textile applications depends on the desired characteristics and uses of the products. For example, microcapsule size, shape, wall material, active substance, release mechanism, method of application, and compatibility with other components of the formulation must be adapted to the requirements of textile processing methods, and uses of the final product.

Most often, microcapsules for textile applications have been prepared by one of the following technological possibilities:

Coacervation processes (e.g. gelatin-gum arabic microcapsule walls) taking place in colloid systems, where macromolecular colloid rich coacervate droplets surround dispersed microcapsule cores, and form a viscous microcapsule wall, which is solidified with crosslinking agents (Figure 3).

Fig. 3 Coating of microcapsules, produced by complex coacervation of gelatin and carboxymethyl cellulose (SEM, 630 ×) with softer, elastic microcapsule walls.
Fig. 3

Coating of microcapsules, produced by complex coacervation of gelatin and carboxymethyl cellulose (SEM, 630 ×) with softer, elastic microcapsule walls.

Polymerization methods, where monomers polymerize around droplets of an emulsion and form a solid polymeric wall. In in situ polymerization (e.g. aminoaldehyde resin walls), monomers or precondensates are added only to the aqueous phase of emulsion (Figure 4), while in interfacial polymerization (e.g. polyamide, polyester, polyurethane walls), one of the monomers is dissolved in the aqueous phase and the other in a lipophylic solvent.

Fig. 4 Coating of microcapsules, produced by in situ polymerization of aminoaldehyde precondensates (SEM, 1900 ×) with impermeable, pressure-sensitive hard walls.
Fig. 4

Coating of microcapsules, produced by in situ polymerization of aminoaldehyde precondensates (SEM, 1900 ×) with impermeable, pressure-sensitive hard walls.

Physical/mechanical methods (e.g. spray-drying, fluidized bed coating, extrusion, deposition in vacuum, solvent evaporation from emulsions, ultrasonic liposome formation), where the microcapsule wall is mechanically applied, condensed or layered around the microcapsule core. Physical/mechanical microencapsulation methods are used to design microcapsules that release their content during textile dyeing, washing or drying; the walls are soluble or heat sensitive to dissolve or melt at a desired circumstance.

In situ polymerization is one of the chemical microencapsulation processes often used for technical applications, including textiles. The process takes place in oil-in-water emulsions; the result is nicely smooth, spherical, reservoir-type microcapsules with transparent polymeric pressure-sensitive microcapsule walls (Figures 5 and 6). Typical wall materials for in situ polymerization are aminoplast resins, such as melamine–formaldehyde, urea-formaldehyde, urea–melamine-formaldehyde or resorcinol-modified melamine–formaldehyde polymers. The in situ processes (Figure 7) can start either directly from amine and aldehyde monomers, or from the precondensates. Typically, all materials for the formation of microcapsule wall originate from the continuous aqueous phase of the oil-in-water emulsion system, and therefore have to be water-soluble. To achieve better process control and improved mechanical properties of microcapsules, modifying agents/protective colloids are added, such as styrene-maleic acid anhydride copolymers, polyacrylic acid, or acrylamidopropylsulfonate and methacrylic acid/acrylic acid copolymers [3].

Fig. 5 Spherical, reservoir-type microcapsules, produced by in situ polymerization in oil-in-water emulsion (SEM, left 500 ×, right 5000 ×).
Fig. 5

Spherical, reservoir-type microcapsules, produced by in situ polymerization in oil-in-water emulsion (SEM, left 500 ×, right 5000 ×).

Fig. 6 Visualization of wall thickness in a container-type microcapsule, produced by in situ polymerization (SEM, 5000 ×).
Fig. 6

Visualization of wall thickness in a container-type microcapsule, produced by in situ polymerization (SEM, 5000 ×).

Fig. 7 Example of microcapsules synthesis by in situ polymerization process.
Fig. 7

Example of microcapsules synthesis by in situ polymerization process.

For some technical applications the in situ aminoaldehyde microcapsules remain irreplaceable, due to some superior characteristics, such as:

  1. the spherical reservoir-type shape with thin impermeable transparent walls (Figure 8);

  2. high chemical and thermal stability;

  3. high microcapsule resistance to harsh chemical environments (e.g. in detergents, softeners etc.);

  4. good storage stability;

  5. high microencapsulation yields (≥ 99%);

  6. effective microencapsulation process control;

  7. controllable microcapsule size and size distribution;

  8. good transferability of the in situ process to large-scale industrial production.

Fig. 8 Spherical type pressure-sensitive microcapsules, produced by in situ polymerization, after the release of encapsulated core material (SEM, 7500 ×).
Fig. 8

Spherical type pressure-sensitive microcapsules, produced by in situ polymerization, after the release of encapsulated core material (SEM, 7500 ×).

In addition, wall permeability and mechanical characteristics can be regulated and adapted, to obtain tailor-made pressure-sensitive or more elastic microcapsules with controled diffusion, to support different release mechanisms of the products [3, 4]. The main constraint of the in situ process is synthetic nature of aminoaldehyde microcapsule wall, and the residual formaldehyde in microcapsule suspension after the polycondensation process, which limits the in situ microcapsules to technical products. However, with the optimised selection of process parameters and application of formaldehyde scavengers, the concentration of free formaldehyde can be minimized to meet the technical standards for textiles [59].

2.2 Processes of applying microcapsules to textiles

Microcapsules have to be formulated for applications on woven or nonwoven textiles without substantially altering the feel or color of textile products. Formulation additives usually consist of binders, crosslinking agents, organic or inorganic pigments and fillers, antifoaming agents and/or other surfactants, and viscosity-controling agents/thickeners.

Binders play a crucial role in microcapsule formulations for textiles. To a large extent, they determine the quality, durability and washability of textile materials with microencapsulated ingredients. Typically, binders are selected from the groups of:

  1. water-soluble polymers, such as polyvinyl alcohol, carboxymethyl cellulose, starch and modified starches, xanthanes, alginates, and other natural gums;

  2. synthetic latexes, such as polyacrylate latexes, styrene-butadiene, polyvinyl-acetate, ethylene–vinyl acetate copolymers;

  3. synthetic resins, such as such as urea–and melamine–formaldehyde resins, dimethylol ethylene urea, dimethylol dihydroxy ethylene urea, dimethylol propylene urea, polyurethane and epoxy resins, vinyl acetate resins;

  4. synthetic rubbers, such as polyurethanes, nitrile and chloroprene rubbers;

  5. silicones.

Different techniques can be used for applications of microcapsules to textiles. Patents describe incorporation of microencapsulated compounds onto or into textiles by:

  1. coating with an air knife or rod coater;

  2. impregnation or immersion (Figure 9);

  3. printing techniques, such as screen-, photographic-, electrostatic-, pressure-transfer, thermal transfer and inkjet printing;

  4. spraying on the surface of textiles;

  5. inclusion of microcapsules into the textile fibers during the spinning process, such as polyester, nylon or modacryl fiber material;

  6. incorporation into polymer foams, coatings and multilayer composites that are placed or inserted into selected parts of textile clothing or footwear.

Fig. 9 An example of applying microcapsules to textile carriers by impregnation [10].
Fig. 9

An example of applying microcapsules to textile carriers by impregnation [10].

3 Purposes and release mechanisms of microcapsules in textile products

Mechanisms of releasing active ingredients from the microcapsule cores depend on the purpose of microencapsulation, on functions and desired effects of encapsulated components, and on the microcapsule wall characteristics, particularly on permeability. An overview of microencapsulation purposes and release mechanism in textile products is given below, with examples of patented inventions presented in Chapter 4.

In textile applications, microcapsules with permeable walls enable:

  1. Prolonged/sustained release of active components from the core. This principle is used in long-lasting perfumes and deodorants on textile carriers, in insect repellent textiles, and in sustained release cosmetic and medical textiles.

  2. Separation of low and high molecular weight molecules can be applied in microencapsulated enzymes in detergent compositions for machine washing of textiles.

Microcapsules with impermeable walls are used in formulations and products where temporary isolation and quick release of active components are necessary. Examples of useful functions and effects, achieved by applying impermeable microcapsules to textiles, include the following:

  1. Protection of substances against environmental effects: microcapsule walls protect unstable components against environmental influences, and release them only under the desired circumstances. For instance, microencapsulated vitamins, lipids and essential oils in cosmetic textiles are protected against oxidation; microencapsulated enzymes and oxidants are stabilized when added to laundry formulations for textiles.

  2. Separation of reactive components: this is used when leuco dyes are separated from color developers in thermochromic textiles, or to separate reactants in formulations of multicomponent adhesives and binders for textile bonding.

  3. Locally limited activity is applied to enable special color effects, such as reversible color changes, speckled patterns and glossy effects, or to reduce the migration of dyes in multicolor textile printing.

  4. Reduction/prevention of volatility: this ensures that volatile compounds, such as perfumes, fragrances and antimicrobial essential oils are retained in fragranced textiles until they are released in a target situation.

  5. Conversion from a liquid into a solid state: this is beneficial in formulations of powdered adhesives with microencapsulated solvents for textile-containing laminate bonding; liquid crystals are encapsulated and used in color changing textiles.

To release microencapsulated active components from microcapsule cores, numerous ways of release mechanisms have been invented and applied in added-value textile products (Figure 10), such as:

Fig. 10 Purposes of microencapsulation and release mechanisms of microencapsulated active ingredients in textile applications.
Fig. 10

Purposes of microencapsulation and release mechanisms of microencapsulated active ingredients in textile applications.

  1. The mechanism of external pressure, which breaks the microcapsule wall and releases the core, was the first developed and is still widely used, for instance in antimicrobial agents for socks and textile shoe inserts (mechanical pressure caused by walking), fragranced textiles, such as t-shirts, ties, handkerchiefs, pillows and linen (release by pressure and rubbing), and pressure-sensitive multicomponent adhesives for textile bonding (activation in a mechanical press).

  2. In some applications, microcapsule wall breaks because of inner pressure. This happens if the core contains substances which, under special conditions (e.g. UV light), decompose into gaseous components. The effect is used in blowing agents in the production of light synthetic leather.

  3. The core substance can be released by abrasion of the microcapsule wall, e.g. in antistatics and fragrances in textile washing and drying.

  4. In many applications, core materials are released by heat that causes melting of microcapsule wall at a specifically designed temperature. Examples include components in cosmetic and medical textiles (release at body temperature), and textile softeners and fragrances in formulations for dryers (release by heat).

  5. Microencapsulated fire retardants or extinguishers, released by burning, are used in fire-proof textile materials for carpets, curtains, fire-protecting clothes, and car interiors.

  6. Microcapsules in photographic and light-sensitive textile printing processes are decomposed or hardened by light.

  7. In textile washing/cleaning compositions, microcapsules with active ingredients dissolve in a specific solvent (most often water), sometimes only at a selected pH value of the washing cycle.

  8. In textile processing formulations, selected reagents may be released by enzymatic degradation of target microcapsules.

  9. In specific applications, permanent enclosure of the core material within the resistant microcapsules is essential. Examples include microencapsulated phase change materials (PCMs) for active thermal control, where microcapsules hold the PCM solid-liquid transitions, and for liquid crystals in reversible color changing textiles.

4 Applications of microcapsules in textile products

The possibilities for using microencapsulation technologies in textile products are numerous, and include coloring materials, enzymes, fire retardants, adhesives, fragrances, perfumes, insect repellents, disinfectants, cosmetic additives, decontaminants, PCMs, UV absorbers and self-healing agents (see Figure 11).

Fig. 11 Applications of microcapsules in added-value functional textile products.
Fig. 11

Applications of microcapsules in added-value functional textile products.

4.1 Microencapsulated dyes and pigments for textile dyeing and printing

Microencapsulation of dyes and pigments for dyeing and printing is one of the oldest microencapsulation applications in textile processing. The idea of including microencapsulated dyes and pigments found their place in different techniques, such as dyeing and printing by electrostatic fields, solvent dyeing, dot dyeing and multicolored speckled printing, pressure or thermal transfer printing, screen printing, photographic screen printing, and ink jet textile printing (Table 1).

Table 1

Examples of inventions applying microcapsules in textile dyeing and printing.

InventionPatent applicant (reference)
Electrostatic textile printing with powders and microcapsules containing dyes in water or alcohol, to obtain sharper, clearer printings at lower electrostatic field strengths.Sandoz [11]
Solvent dyeing of polyester textiles with organic dyes, microencapsulated in polyethylene wax shells.Sumitomo [12]
Microcapsules and dispersion pastes used for dot dyeing of textiles.Totoki [13]
High contrast dot printing, achieved by gelatin-gum arabic coacervation microencapsulation of powder or liquid textile colorants.Toa Gosei [14]
Woven nylon or silk fabric ribbon for mechanical transfer printing, coated with pressure-sensitive ink microcapsules, produced by coacervation.National Cash Register [15]
Production of semi-permeable gelatin-gum arabic coacervate microcapsules with dyes for speckled screen printing on acrylic, cotton, polyester, nylon, wool, and rayon fabrics.Sakai Textile [16, 17]
Transfer printing process with polyurethane microencapsulated dyes for synthetic textiles.Dickinson Robinson [18]
Photographic screen printing on cotton, polyester, wool, or acrylic fabrics, with pastes containing microencapsulated yellow, red and blue dyes.Nippon Kayaku [19]
Printing inks for transfer printing on polyester fabrics, containing microencapsulated trichlorobenzene or biphenyl solvents to swell the polyester fibers.Seiren [20]
Printing inks for transfer printing on cotton fabrics with improved washfastness, containing microencapsulated reactive or acid dyes and microencapsulated dye fixing agents.Fuji Photo Film [21]
Multicolored speckled printing on polyester, acrylic or wool, achieved by microencapsulated yellow, red and blue dyes.Hayashi [22]
Textile printing process with microencapsulated dyes, resulting in reduced dye migration and improved pattern definition.Milliken Research [23]
Transfer printing on textiles with microencapsulated indigo dyes.Mihara [24]
Thermal imaging system for transferring photographic images to textiles, leather, ceramics, glass or plastics, with heat responsive dye-precursor microcapsules.Foto-Wear [25, 26]
Technology for rapidly dyeing of polyester fiber cloth by dispersible dye microcapsules.Jiangsu Shunyuan Textile [27]
Modified one-bath dyeing technology of polyester/rayon fabric, with dispersed microencapsulated active dye.Shaoxing Dongshi Textile [28]
Method for dyeing natural protein textile fibres’ with microcapsules containing polymeric pendants on the surface, to anchor to the fibres.Ferrini [29]
Ink compositions for ink jet textile printing.Seiko Epson [30]

4.2 Textiles with microencapsulated thermochromic materials

Thermochromism, the reversible dependence of color on temperature, utilizes temperature change to initiate color development or color fading. Thermochromic systems can involve inorganic compounds, such as transition metal and organometallic systems, or organic compounds, including liquid crystals, stereoisomerism and molecular rearrangement. Thermochromic systems based on liquid crystals and molecular rearrangement have been applied successfully in textiles on a commercial scale [31]. Examples are presented in Table 2.

Table 2

Examples of microcapsule-based inventions for the production of thermochromic textiles.

InventionPatent applicant (reference)
Textile material for clothing, comprising a fabric or leather support, coated with a composition of microencapsulated cholesteric liquid crystals.Ruggeri [32]
Production of textile fibers exhibiting reversible color changes, based on microencapsulated color reversible thermochromic systems with leuco dyes (crystal violet lactone), color developers (benzyl-4-hydroxybenzoate) and stearyl phenoxyacetate.Pilot Ink [33]
Thermochromic textiles with a broader color range for a given temperature, coated with binders and microencapsulated thermochromic pigments.Pilot Ink [34]
Thermo- or photochromic cellulose fiber textiles, based on reversibly changeable microencapsulated thermochromic or photochromic materials. When worn, the resulting T-shirts exhibit color changes according to heat transmission from the body.Matsui Shikiso [35, 36]
Color changing fabrics, based on synthetic fabrics, coated with microencapsulated thermochromic dyes. With the combination of four basic colors, each in two shades, a total of 56 fabric colors are achieved.MATEO report [37]
Production of composite sensor fiber, comprising microencapsulated thermoresponsive materials, and their applications in fiber fabrics.Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation [38]
Thermochromic pigments in microcapsules of very small sizes.Chromatic Technologies [39]

4.3 Textiles with microencapsulated photochromic materials

Photochromic dyes absorb quanta in the visible or near-infrared light region. The excited state of a dye must last long enough to undergo a chemical reaction. Applications of photochromic dyes are known for invisible writing, erasable recording media, darkening of sunglasses, or darkening of textile products, such as curtains, t-shirts and sportswear [40]. Microencapsulation of photochromic dyes for textile applications is presented in Table 3.

Table 3

Examples of inventions with microencapsulated photochromic materials.

InventionPatent applicant (reference)
Light- and washfast reversible photochromic fabrics coated with spironaphthoxazine derivatives, microencapsulated in hollow porous inorganic microspheres, for applications in curtains.Unitika [41]
Photochromic inks for textiles, containing reversible photochromic dyes, microencapsulated by a gelatin coacervation method, formulated with an acrylic binder, used for screen printing on cotton fabrics.Japan Capsular Products & Mitsubishi [42, 43]
Reversible photochromic textiles, resistant to fastness due to abrasion or washing, containing microencapsulated photochromic substances and binders, used for the production of photochromic shirts.Matsui Shikiso [44]
Textile printing pastes, comprising microencapsulated photochromic amine dyes, such as 6′-substituted spironaphthoxazines or 3-substituted naphthopyrans, and acrylic oligomers as binders.Matsui Shikiso [45]
Production of microencapsulated photochromic substances for textile dyeing and printing.Nippon Paint [46]
Photochromic double-shell microcapsules, prepared by interfacial and in situ polymerization, for textile printing applications.China Tex. Acad. [47]

4.4 Microencapsulated catalysts and enzymes for special textile effects

Patents on microencapsulated catalysts and enzymes in textile treatment describe methods for achieving special effects, such as wrinkle recovery, crease retention or biomechanical visual effects on fabric surfaces, resulting in opalescence, reflection, or matting (Table 4).

Table 4

Examples of microencapsulated catalysts and enzymes for textile treatment.

InventionPatent applicant (reference)
Microencapsulated catalysts and crosslinking agents for improved wrinkle recovery and crease retention of durable press cotton, linen and regenerated cellulose fabrics.Cluett, Peabody & Co. [48]
Sandoz’s Sirrix Luna treatment, containing microencapsulated enzymes (e.g. hydrolases) to produce special effects on fabric surfaces – opalescence, moonlight effects, cat’s eye reflection, and washed down appearances.Sandoz [49]

4.5 Textiles with microencapsulated fire retardants

One of the shortcomings of untreated textile materials used for decoration and construction purposes is their flammability. As a solution, flame retardant textiles have been developed with incorporated fire retardants. A review of microencapsulation of flame retardant formulations suitable for application in textiles was published by Salaün et al. [50]. Microencapsulation can be used to avoid reactions of fire retardants with textile polymers, prevent sublimation or exudation of fire retardants from the polymer, or to eliminate substance hydrophilicity. The idea of microencapsulated fire retardants for textiles was first launched by the industrial producers in the beginning of the 1970s. Textiles treated with microencapsulated fire retardants have been used for military and civilian clothing and tents, for carpets, furniture and car interiors (Table 5).

Table 5

Some inventions on fire-resistant textiles with microencapsulated fire retardants.

InventionPatent applicant (reference)
Impregnation of textiles with microencapsulated active substances, including fire retardants (Unflame BP) in polyurethane, polyorganosiloxane, polyolefin, or epoxy resin walls.Kanegafuchi Spinning [51]
Microencapsulated fire retardants, incorporated into synthetic fibers or applied on fabrics, released from microcapsules at the ignition temperature of textiles. Wall materials include polystyrene, polyvinyl alcohol, phenol–formaldehyde resins and urethane polymers.Kanegafuchi Spinning [52]
Self-extinguishing and laundering resistant textiles, impregnated with a dispersion of microencapsulated fire retardants in polymeric walls, and acrylate binders.Asahi Chemical [53]
Fire-resistant fibers, containing microencapsulated fire retardants and perfumes, formulated with acrylamide–methyl acrylate polymer binders.Japan Exlan [54]
Flame resistant polyamide or polyester carpets, containing volatile fire retardants in heat sensitive urea–formaldehyde or melamine-formaldehyde polymeric wall microcapsules.Champion International [55]
Washfast fire-resistant polyester fabrics, based on microencapsulated halogenated fireproofing agents and acrylate copolymer binders.Matsumoto [56]
A fire retardant material, comprising both ammonium polyphosphate particles microencapsulated within a melamine or melamine-based resin, and melamine-based particles retained in a base material. The material can be applied to textiles.Dartex Coatings [57]
Microcapsulation of flame retardants by in situ polymerization of aminoaldehyde resins, for applications in textiles and other technical products.Aero [8]

4.6 Microencapsulated agents for textile sizing and adhesive bonding

Microencapsulated sizing agents, adhesives, adhesive activators and crosslinking agents have been used for textile sizing and bonding. The microcapsule core release mechanisms include pressure, heat or a combination of both (Table 6).

Table 6

Inventions on microencapsulated agents for textile sizing and bonding.

InventionPatent applicant (reference)
Treatment of knitted fabrics with microencapsulated sizing agents, composed of vinyl adhesives, solvents, or other compounds susceptible to reactions with textiles.Carlier [58]
Cold sealable textiles, based on microencapsulated adhesive components, applied in systems of cold adhesive bonding, reinforcing and stiffening, used in clothing, shoe, leather, and fur industries.Hermann Windel Co. [59]
Textile adhesive composites with microencapsulated crosslinking agents, useful for reinforcement of textiles by hot pressing.Lainiere de Picardie [60]

4.7 Microencapsulated blowing agents and expandable microcapsules for leather substitutes

Applications of expandable microcapsules in textile products include flexible light weight leather substitutes, waterproof coatings, anti-slip materials for carpets, and expandable sewing threads (Table 7).

Table 7

Examples of inventions on blowing agents and expandable microcapsules.

InventionPatent applicant (reference)
Foamable microcapsules for the production of leather substitutes.Achilles Corporation [61]
Composition of thermally expandable microcapsules in a polymeric resin, and production of light weight flexible leather substitute by hot pressing.Bando Chemical [62]
Compositions of colored hollow silicate microspheres, coupling agents and organic polymer binders for light weight leather substitutes on textile fabric supports.Meisei Rejinokara [63]
Anti-slip adhesive nonwoven textiles, containing polyester supports, laminated with a polyethylene film and microcapsules that expand by heating to produce an anti-slip foam.Nippon Kako Seishi [64]

4.8 Microencapsulation for textile water proofing

Increased impermeability and water proofing of textile surfaces can be achieved by expanding a layer of microcapsules on a porous support into an impermeable layer, or by applying microencapsulated water proofing agents, and releasing them from microcapsule cores. In both cases, heat treatment plays a crucial role in microcapsule activation (Table 8).

Table 8

Examples of inventions using microcapsules for textile water proofing.

InventionPatent applicant (reference)
Waterproof sewing threads, impregnated with heat expandable thermoplastic compositions containing microcapsules, used for sewing leather substitutes, textiles for raincoats, tents and shoes.Nippon Rubber [65]
Textile coating compositions, containing waterproofing agents in inorganic porous microcapsules, give water resistance by heat treatment.Toray Industries [66]
Thermally treated coating of synthetic resin microcapsules expands into an impermeable surface layer on porous polyurethane support.Takashimaya Nippatsu [67]
Heat expandable microcapsules with a thermoplastic resin wall and a gas generating core, formulated with a binder, expand by heating and give flexible light weight waterproof woven, knit or nonwoven textiles.Owari Seisen [68]

4.9 Microcapsules in textile softening and antistatic compositions

Fabric softeners and antistatics for textile washing and drying employ microcapsules to solve the incompatibility of antistatic compounds and anionic surfactants in detergents, to incorporate liquid ingredients into solid formulations, to add hydrophobic components into water-based formulations, and to achieve a prolonged release of fragrances (Table 9).

Table 9

Examples of textile softening and antistatic compositions with microcapsules.

InventionPatent applicant (reference)
Polyurethane foam sponge to be added to wet laundry in a rotating dryer, containing microencapsulated fabric softeners and perfumes in coacervation microcapsules.Colgate Palmolive [69]
Pre-softener and washing composition with pressure-sensitive microcapsules, comprising a perfume core and urea resin wall.Procter and Gamble [70]
Softening antistatic agents, microencapsulated by interfacial polymerization, released by heat and abrasion.Procter and Gamble [71]
Fabric softening formulations comprising both microencapsulated and free fragrances; with microcapsule walls made of gelatin, dextrin, gum arabic, modified starch, urea-formaldehyde resin or other polymers.International Flavors and Fragrances [72]
Aqueous textile softener compositions for the rinse stage of laundering, containing microencapsulated perfumes in a complex coacervate shells of gelatin and a polyanion.Procter and Gamble [73]
Cationic polymer stabilized microcapsule compositions for fabric softeners.Colgate Palmolive [74]
Friable perfume microcapsules for dryer-added fabric conditioning.Procter & Gamble [75]
Use of a cross-linked cationic polymer to provide stability to microcapsules in a fabric softener composition.Procter & Gamble [76]

4.10 Microencapsulated ingredients in textile detergents

There are patents on microencapsulated components in detergent formulations for washing textile goods. The main applications include microencapsulated enzymes (Table 10); bleaching and whitening agents (Table 11); and perfumes and other additives, such as dry defoamers, dyes and cleaning chemicals (Tables 12 and 13).

Table 10

Examples of patents on microencapsulated enzymes for textile detergent formulations.

InventionPatent applicant (reference)
Production of microencapsulated enzymes for detergents by spray-drying of compositions consisting of inorganic salts, water-soluble binders and enzymes.Toyo Jozo & Fuji [77]
Spray cooled microencapsulated proteases with fatty acid or fatty alcohol walls, incorporated into sodium perborate bleach compositions.Henkel [78]
Mixed granulate bleach and enzyme compositions, consisting of a dry peroxy acid bleach, and enzyme microcapsules.Procter and Gamble [79]
Liquid detergent formulations with microencapsulated enzymes.Showa Denko [80]
Microencapsulation of enzymes for detergents with a mixture of hard and soft waxes for wall materials.Lever Brothers [81]
Microencapsulation of proteases, lipases and amylases into dual-walled microcapsules, to achieve time release and prevent enzyme deactivation by halogen bleaches in mixed bleach/enzyme detergent compositions.Olson [82]
Microencapsulation of enzymes with water-soluble alkali metal silicates and additives, to achieve prolonged enzyme storage stability in the presence of oxidant bleaches.Clorox [83]
Liquid detergent concentrate with microencapsulated enzymes; microcapsule polymeric walls remain permeable for water and small molecules.Novo Nordisk [84]
Liquid detergent composition, comprising microencapsulated enzymes; microcapsules are produced by crosslinking of a polybranched polyamine.Novozymes [85]
Table 11

Examples of patents on microencapsulated bleaching agents and whiteners in textile laundry formulations.

InventionPatent applicant (reference)
Microencapsulated fluorescent whiteners, protected from the oxidative degradation by NaOCl bleach.Prurex [86]
Spray-dried microcapsules of perborate activators for bleaching and washing liquors.Henkel [87]
Microencapsulated fluorescent bis(triazinylamino) stilbenedisulfonate brighteners for white and colored fabrics.Henkel [88]
Fatty acid microencapsulated ethylenediamine tetraacetate for bleaches and detergents containing active oxygen.Henkel [89]
Fatty acid microencapsulated tetraacetylglycoluril activator for sodium perborate in detergents.Henkel [90]
Free flowing granular laundry detergents, containing chlorine donors and microencapsulated fluorescent whiteners in carboxymethyl cellulose microcapsules, produced by spray-drying.Ciba-Geigy [91]
Molten fatty acids microencapsulation of peroxide bleaching agent activators, such as tetraacetylglycoluril and tetraacetilethylenediamine.Nobel Hoechst Chimie [92]
Fluidized bed microencapsulation for the production of free flowing potassium dichloroisocyanourate bleach particles, encapsulated by an inner layer of fatty acid, and an outer layer of a water-soluble fatty acid salt.Lever Brothers [93]
Fluidized bed technology, using poly(vinylpyrrolidone) wall material for microencapsulation of sodium perborate bleaching agents for detergent compositions.Unilever [94]
Spray coating process of active chlorine bleach microgranules with two layer walls, utilizing a mixture of fatty acids and waxes.Unilever [95]
Fluidized bed technology for the encapsulation of sodium percarbonate with a molten polyethylene wax.Interox [96]
Microencapsulated bleaching agents consisting of an active halogen oxidizing material, and a fatty acid soap wall.Lever Brothers [97]
Clear detergent gel compositions, comprising microencapsulated chlorine and oxygen bleaches, bleach precursors, enzymes, fabric softeners, surfactants and perfumes.Lever Brothers [98]
Compositions of molecularly encapsulated preformed peroxyacids and bleach catalysts.Procter & Gamble [99]
Table 12

Examples of microencapsulated antifoaming agents in textile detergents.

InventionPatent applicant (reference)
Detergent composition for machine washing, containing antifoaming agents, microencapsulated by gelatin-gum arabic walls.Unilever [100]
Low foaming detergent compositions, containing silicon defoamers, microencapsulated with methyl- or carboxymethyl cellulose.Henkel [101]
Table 13

Examples of patented microencapsulated perfumes, dyes, softeners and other additives in laundry detergents.

InventionPatent applicant (reference)
Microcapsule formulations for textile dry cleaning, containing microcapsules of foam forming liquid detergents or soaps, produced by coacervation.Werner und Mertz [102]
Detergent compositions including a microencapsulated water-soluble dyes, bleaching agents, surfactants and a perfumes.Dainichiseika Colour and Chemicals [103]
Laundry detergents containing perfumes in water-insoluble friable microcapsules. The microcapsules remain intact during laundering, and are fractured during handling of the laundered textiles, thus releasing the perfume.Procter and Gamble [104]
Microencapsulation of cationic softeners with wall materials including waxes, fatty acids, fatty alcohols or fatty esters with the melting points above 50 °C; and their inclusion into powder detergents, to prevent undesired precipitation with anionic surfactants during the fabric laundering, but releasing the softener in a heated dryer.Procter and Gamble [105]
Microencapsulated photoactivator dye compositions that are quickly soluble in water, for applications in detergents.Procter & Gamble [106]
Synthesis of microcapsules containing fragrances or perfumes for laundry detergents or cleaning products.BASF [107]
Structured liquid detergents formulations with incorporated microcapsules.Unilever [108]
Storage stable microcapsules of scents in detergent compositions that are low in formaldehyde, produced by reacting aromatic alcohols or ethers and aldehydic components, and optionally a (meth)acrylate-polymers.Henkel [109]
Laundry detergent compositions comprising microcapsules, pH tuneable di-amido gellants and surfactants.Procter & Gamble [110]

4.10.1 Enzymes

In early patents, enzyme encapsulation improved detergent storage stability, reduced dusting and minimized health hazards in detergent factories and households. Subsequently microencapsulation was used to protect enzymes against the activity of aggressive additives, especially bleaches. Newer patents used the advantage of encapsulation to incorporate enzymes into liquid and gelled detergent formulations (Table 10).

4.10.2 Bleaching agents and whiteners

Microencapsulated bleaching agents in laundry formulations have the advantages of being separated from the oxidation sensitive components in the detergent compositions, to prevent reduction of their bleaching capacity, and to reduce the damage to fabrics (Table 11).

4.11 Textiles with microencapsulated fragrances and perfumes

Fragranced textiles, containing microencapsulated essential oils, aromas and perfumes, have been developed to either slowly release their contents through permeable walls, or to have completely impermeable walls, and open only by application of mechanical pressure and rubbing whenever the wearer moves. A combination of both release mechanisms is also possible. After the problems of controling the release have been solved, and better washfast binders introduced, a new generation of aromatic textiles entered the market that remain fragrant over a prolonged period of time, resist dry cleaning, or keep the microcapsules over several washing cycles. Applications of microencapsulated fragrances, perfumes and antimicrobial essential oils in woven and nonwoven textiles range from perfumed curtains, bed linen, shirts, socks and hosiery to antimicrobial towels, shoe insoles, and textiles for seats in public transportation (Table 14). Figures 1215 illustrate some examples of our own research [111].

Table 14

Examples of patents on fragrant microcapsules in textile products.

InventionPatent applicant (reference)
Microcapsule-coating of fabrics for fragranced linings and ribbons, coated with gelatin-gum arabic coacervate microcapsules of lavender or pine oil.Eurand [112]
Fragranced towels containing microencapsulated perfumes. Coating composition include acrylic polymer binders and pressure-sensitive microencapsulated perfumes.Shibata Towel [113]
Fragrant textiles that retain fragrances after repeated washing. Coating compositions contain urea resin microencapsulated fragrances and silicone binders, such as epoxy modified dimethyl siloxane. Applications include dyed and softener treated fragrant silk scarves and handkerchiefs; washfast silk neckties with lasting fragrances; fragrant hand knitting and handicraft yarns; fragrant leather substitutes and cotton jersey shirts; fragrant cotton bedding with improved washfastness; waterproofed polyester textiles with jasmine microcapsules; and waterproofed woven fabrics, knits and yarns, treated with urea resin jasmine flower perfume microcapsules.Kanebo [114–119]
Synthesis of essential oil microcapsules by in situ polymerization, and a technological process for preparing textile carriers saturated or coated with microencapsulated scents.Aero [120]
Garments, interior materials, filters and automobile interiors, composed of nonwoven textiles, coated with essential oils in cyclodextrin and porous silica microspheres.Osaka Juki [121]
Fragrant textiles with improved durability and slow release of fragrances, comprising hollow fibers with microencapsulated perfumes.Kanebo [122]
Microencapsulated grass aroma in rattan-imitating mat surface materials in home textiles.Shanghai Shuixing Home Textile [123]
Incorporation of a polyester microencapsulated fragrances into spinning materials to produce fragrant fibers.Iangsu Zja New Material Co. [124]
Fig. 12 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) photograph of microcapsules with a rose fragrance (left,), and eucalyptus essential oil (right), prepared by in situ polymerization, to be applied in fragranced textiles (SEM 2000 ×).
Fig. 12

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) photograph of microcapsules with a rose fragrance (left,), and eucalyptus essential oil (right), prepared by in situ polymerization, to be applied in fragranced textiles (SEM 2000 ×).

Fig. 13 Nylon pantyhose textile with microencapsulated rose oil in pressure-sensitive microcapsules, produced by in situ polymerization (SEM, left 50 ×, right 1000 ×).
Fig. 13

Nylon pantyhose textile with microencapsulated rose oil in pressure-sensitive microcapsules, produced by in situ polymerization (SEM, left 50 ×, right 1000 ×).

Fig. 14 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) of pressure-sensitive microencapsulated fragrances on a decorative wrapping ribbon; fragrances are released by mechanical pressure, applied by handling (SEM, left 500 ×, right 2000 ×).
Fig. 14

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) of pressure-sensitive microencapsulated fragrances on a decorative wrapping ribbon; fragrances are released by mechanical pressure, applied by handling (SEM, left 500 ×, right 2000 ×).

Fig. 15 Nonwoven textile handkerchief with microencapsulated decongestant eucalyptus oil (SEM, left 50 ×, right 1000).
Fig. 15

Nonwoven textile handkerchief with microencapsulated decongestant eucalyptus oil (SEM, left 50 ×, right 1000).

4.12 Textiles with microencapsulated animal repellents

To obtain prolonged insecticidal and insect repellent effects of fibers and textiles, and to reduce the toxicity and volatility of active compounds, insect repellents and/or insecticides can be microencapsulated and applied to textiles (Table 15).

Table 15

Examples of patents on repellent and insecticide microcapsules in textile products.

InventionPatent applicant (reference)
Insect repelling carpets, curtains and sheets, manufactured by the application of a sustained release microencapsulated diethyltoluamide insect repellent in a polyamine resin.Hosokawa Textile [125]
Fabrics and panty hoses with durable insect repellence, finished with a composition containing aminoaldehyde polymer microcapsules of N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide repellent and acrylic polymer binder.Toyobo [126]
Long-lasting mosquito repelling panty hoses, treated with microencapsulated repellents, such as Deet.Toyobo [127]
Durable microencapsulated insect repellents as household sprays for textile products, e.g. for mothproofing.Kanebo [128]
Improved fixing process of repellent microcapsules on textile fibers, contributing to better washfastness.Hasokawa Textile [129]
Production of insecticidal microcapsules for fibers or textiles, and applications in insecticide-processed fibers or textiles.Union Kagaku [130]
Insect repellent textiles comprising a natural or synthetic fabric, a microencapsulated insect repellent, and a binder.Innovatec [131]
Microencapsulated biocide and repellent compositions with a double repellence action, used in textile garments.Mateo Herrero María Pilar [132]

In addition to insect repellents, other animal repellents have been microencapsulated. For instance, prolonged release microencapsulated deer and rabbit repellents on nonwoven textiles were developed for horticultural and agricultural use [133].

4.13 Textiles with microencapsulated antimicrobial, disinfectant and deodorant components

Several essential oils and plant extracts have antimicrobial and deodorant properties. Because they are liquids, microencapsulation is required for the conversion into the solid state. At the same time, a prolonged activity of microencapsulated active substances can be achieved.

Inventions on microencapsulated antimicrobials for textile applications include various textile coating compositions with antimicrobial effects, as well as specific coating procedures and additives (Table 16).

Table 16

Examples of textile inventions with microencapsulated antimicrobial, disinfectant and deodorant components.

InventionPatent applicant (reference)
Deodorant textiles, coated with porous microcapsules containing plant oils and extracts, such as wood oil and camellia leaf extract.Toray [134]
Bactericidal printing compositions for garments, containing porous microcapsules with bactericides.Tokyo Houlaisha [135]
Manufacturing of antibacterial garments by printing fabrics with a mixture of binders and porous bactericide microcapsules.Tokyo Houlaisha [136]
Production of washfast antibacterial fabrics by immersing polyester-cotton knits in a dispersion of melamine resin wall microcapsules, containing N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide core, and a polyurethane binder.Asahi [137]
Microencapsulated disinfectants, such as dimethyldidecylammonium chloride and glycerol, in ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer walls, for applications in wound dressings, medical and surgical gloves, textiles, and paper products.Flamel Technologies [138]
Textile fiber structures with adhered gelatin microcapsules, containing biocides, such as gamma-oryzanol in olive oil, and silicone binders.Toray [139]
Preparation of textile carriers, coated or saturated with microencapsulated antimicrobial essential oils, produced by in situ polymerization of aminoaldehyde resins.Aero [120]
Industrial textiles with fungicidal and bactericidal activity, containing microencapsulated catechins and/or saponins.Elb Company [140]
Anti-mite and antibacterial polyester staple fibers, prepared by spinning, containing micro anti-mite ceramic powders and silver-loaded nano titanium dioxide composites.Shanghai Different Chemical Fibre Co. [141]

As an example of our work, we developed antimicrobial textile shoe insoles, based on nonwoven polyester textiles, impregnated with a mixture of microencapsulated essential oils of sage, lavender and rosemary (Figure 16). Pressure-sensitive aminoaldehyde resin microcapsules with partially permeable walls were prepared using a modified in situ polymerization method. For the impregnation of textiles, a technique for the transport of the textile carrier through the impregnation basin was used. Product testing proved the sustained release of essential oils from microcapsules in worn shoe insoles, and antimicrobial activity of the essential oil mixture against the microorganisms Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans and Trichophyton mentagrophytes [142, 143].

Fig. 16 Nonwoven textile for shoe insoles, impregnated with pressure-sensitive microcapsules, containing an antimicrobial composition. Essential oils are protected from oxidation until the microcapsules open by mechanical pressure during walking (SEM, left 50 ×, right 1000 ×).
Fig. 16

Nonwoven textile for shoe insoles, impregnated with pressure-sensitive microcapsules, containing an antimicrobial composition. Essential oils are protected from oxidation until the microcapsules open by mechanical pressure during walking (SEM, left 50 ×, right 1000 ×).

4.14 Bioactive medical and cosmetic textiles with microencapsulated ingredients

In the 1990, the first inventions of medical and cosmetic textiles introduced added-value textile products with prolonged effects, such as antimicrobial effects, accelerating blood circulation, improving the physiological condition of skin, skin hydration, ageing prevention, or skin whitening. Soon other inventions followed, aiming at pain relief, itch suppression, accelerating the metabolism of water, reducing cellulite, and similar effects. The microcapsules are typically not broken when produced, processed, or laundered, but gradually burst open when the textiles are worn. The formulations are applied to the fabrics by soaking, coating or spraying; microcapsules can also be formulated as sprays, which tightly adhere the microcapsules to textile structures, such as hosiery, underwear, bedlinen, and bandages (Table 17).

Table 17

Examples of inventions including microcapsules in cosmetic and medical textiles.

InventionPatent applicant (reference)
Pressure-sensitive microencapsulated physiologically active compounds, adhered to textile fibers by polymeric binders, with a prolonged antimicrobial and blood circulation accelerating effects.Kanebo [144]
Textile structures with microencapsulated substances for improving the physiological conditions of human skin, such as functional vitamin C, vitamin E, seaweed extracts, antipruritic and analgesic agents, and/or aromatic agents – designed for medical auxiliary materials, bed clothes, stockings and underwear.Kanebo [145]
Medical/cosmetic textiles with microencapsulated subcutaneous fat controllers – extracts of medicinal plants – to disperse fats, accelerate the metabolism of water, reduce stasis and cellulite.Toray [146]
Bioactive moisturizing polyamide and silk protein elastic textiles with microencapsulated moisturizers, used in direct contact with skin as bandages, elastic supports, and hosiery.Dim S. A [147]
Microencapsulation of bioactive body care substances by coacervation of gelatin-alginate complexes. Microcapsules are fixed on textile supports by crosslinking alginate or chitosan polysaccharides.Ted Lapidus [148]
Pharmaceutical and medical functional textiles comprising a textile carrier and microencapsulated physiologically active substances.Blücher GmbH [149]
Clothing for daily pharmacological treatment of fungal infections, consisting of microcapsules grafted on the textile material to manage moisture, and of microencapsulated antifungal agents.InnovaTec [150]

4.15 Textile decontaminants, filters and odor absorbers

Some patents describe the incorporation of microcapsule bearing absorbents and decontaminants into textiles for special purposes, such as waste water purification, odor absorption, and military decontamination (Table 18).

Table 18

Examples of microencapsulated components in textile-based filters, odor absorbers and decontaminants.

InventionPatent applicant
Microencapsulated conventional decontamination agents, effective for the deactivation of toxic mustard blistering agents or toxic nerve agents, applied to clothing fabrics in acrylic resinous binder finishes.US Dept of the Army [151]
Coagulation filter textiles, coated with organic polymeric or inorganic coagulants, microencapsulated by microporous inorganic walls, for applications in waste water treatment.Kanai Hiroyuki [152]
Textile odor-absorbing car interior linings with odor-absorbing microcapsules.GM Global Technology Operations [153]
Functional textiles comprising a backing with microencapsulated active ingredients, used in protective clothing for civil and military use, and in filters for removing harmful materials, odors and poisons.Blücher Gmbh [154]

4.16 Textiles for active thermal control

Textiles for active thermal control have been one of the fast growing product areas of microencapsulation technology applications (Table 19). In addition to attempts to convert sunlight energy into chemical and later thermal energy, a wave of inventions and practical applications utilized microencapsulated PCMs that absorb or emit heat at their phase change transition temperature (Figure 17). Typical examples of PCMs are strait chain paraffinic hydrocarbons with 13 to 28 carbon atoms, and the phase change temperatures ranging from −5.5 °C to +61 °C. As they are flammable and liquid above the phase transition temperature, microencapsulation is essential for their practical use in various thermal management applications. In functional textiles, microencapsulated PCMs function as heat absorbers or as barriers against cold, and are incorporated into products with enhanced thermal properties and active thermal control [155].

Table 19

Examples of microcapsule involving inventions in functional textile products with heat storing and releasing properties.

InventionPatent applicant (reference)
Incorporation of PCM microcapsules into textile fibers by adding microcapsules to the molten polymer or to the polymer solution before spinning.Triangle R&D [157]
Textile materials with heat storing properties, capable of converting sunlight energy into chemical energy, and store it for later release, based on microencapsulated norbornadiene derivatives and catalysts, formulated in resin binders.Kiyokawa [158]
Coating compositions for textile fibers, containing PCM microcapsules, and binders as liquid polymers or polymer solutions (polyurethanes, nitrile and chloroprene rubbers, polyvinyl alcohol, silicones, ethylene/vinyl acetate copolymers, and acrylic polymers).Triangle R&D [159]
Synthetic foam inserts with anisotropically distributed leak resistant dual-walled PCM microcapsules, used in textile products.Bryant & Colvin [160, 161]
Applications of PCM microcapsule containing insulation materials in shoe insoles, ski boot liners, thermal socks, gloves and face masks for cold weather activities, diver’s wet suits, heating or cooling blankets for treating hypothermia or fever patients, and therapeutic heating or cooling orthopaedic joint supports.Buckley [156]
Applications of microencapsulated PCMs in thermal protection liners for diver’s wetsuits, dry suits and hot water suits for extreme cold water diving, hot water diving, or as emergency backup heat sources.USA Secretary of the Navy [162]
Inclusion of PCM microcapsules in composites with several layers, for improved thermal control and comfort of the wearer.Buckley [163]
Three-layered thermal insulating fabric structure, containing microencapsulated paraffinic PCMs, providing a dynamic thermal response in clothing.Outlast Technologies [164]
Metal oxide gel coated microcapsules, containing PCMs, with improved mechanical stress and flame resistance, to be incorporated into foams, fibers, slurries, coatings.Frisby Technologies [165]
Nonwoven textiles with reversible enhanced thermal control, containing a web bonded by polymeric binder and a microencapsulated PCM.Carl Freudenberg [166]
Nanostructured PCMs used for thermoregulatory coatings for use in a wide range of applications, including cooling textiles and wipes.Bioastra Tech. [167]
Two-piece wearable absorbent articles, such as diapers, comprising microencapsulated PCMs and absorbent inserts.Procter & Gamble [168]
Fig. 17 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) photograph of microcapsules containing a paraffinic PCM, prepared by in situ polymerization, to be applied in functional textiles (SEM 2000 ×).
Fig. 17

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) photograph of microcapsules containing a paraffinic PCM, prepared by in situ polymerization, to be applied in functional textiles (SEM 2000 ×).

The choice of suitable PCMs depends on the latent heat of the phase change and the transition temperature. In general, the higher the PCM’s latent heat of phase change, the more thermal energy a material can store. According to their phase change temperature ranges, the PCMs are categorized into three main groups – the heating, the cooling and the buffering PCMs [156]:

  1. The phase transition temperature of the heating PCMs is above the body’s normal skin temperature. When a heating PCM is warmed above its transition temperature and placed in thermal contact with the skin, the temperature gradient flows from the PCM into the body.

  2. The cooling PCMs have a phase transition temperature below the body’s normal skin temperature. When chilled below their transition temperature, the temperature gradient flows from the body into the PCM.

  3. The phase transition temperature of the buffering PCMs is slightly below the normal body temperature. These materials absorb or release heat depending on environmental and metabolic conditions.

To include PCM microcapsules into textile products, different systems have been developed, such as:

  1. the incorporation of PCM microcapsules into the textile fibers before or during the spinning process;

  2. the coating of fibers and fabrics with compositions of PCM microcapsules and binders;

  3. the insertion of polymer foams with microcapsules PCM into textile products;

  4. the preparation of complex composites with three or more layers.

4.17 Microcapsules in self-cleaning textiles and self-healing fibers

A new generation of high-tech functional textiles is emerging, known also as smart textiles; some of them contain various microencapsulated components to achieve self-refreshing, self-cleaning, abrasion-resistant, or self-healing properties (Table 20).

Table 20

Examples of inventions of self-cleaning surfaces and self-healing fibers, containing microencapsulated components.

InventionPatent applicant (reference)
Microcapsules for self-refreshing textiles, containing microencapsulated polyols.Despature et fils [169]
Silicone textile surface treatment (conditioning, hydrophobing, softening) with silicate wall microcapsules.Dow Corning [170]
Particles with a structural surface, prepared by siloxane or silane emulsion polymerization, useful to produce abrasion resistant self-cleaning surfaces.Wacker Chemie [171]
Hybrid high-strength carbon fiber/epoxy composites, reinforced with ultrathin toughening and self-healing core-shell fibers.NDSU Res. Foundation [172]
Combination of a self-healing polymer matrix and carbon fiber reinforcement, designed to be used in space missions.NASA [173]

5 Concluding remarks

The idea of using microencapsulation technology in added-value textile products was born soon after the introduction of the large-scale production of microcapsules for pressure-sensitive copying papers. Microencapsulation for textiles became a research and development area with a strong industrial intellectual property protection, as patent documents outnumbered scientific articles. In the past some reviews were prepared to summarize research and development achievements [111, 174178]. The survey in this chapter, prepared by analysis of inventions from the beginning of the microencapsulation technology to the present day, reveals that the first burst of patents on microcapsules for textiles in the 1970s brought the following microencapsulated products: (i) dyes and pigments for special textile dyeing and printing techniques; (ii) catalysts, crosslinking agents and enzymes for textile treatment; (iii) reagents for textile sizing and bonding; (iv) fire retardants for fire-resistant textiles; (v) expandable microcapsules for the production of light weight leather substitutes and water proofing of porous textile surfaces; (vi) fragrant textiles with microencapsulated essential oils and aromas; (vii) ingredients in textile detergents and softeners, including enzymes, bleaches, softeners and antistatics for textile washing and drying compositions.

After a short stagnation of research in the beginning of the 1980s, there was a second wave of textile microcapsule patents, with new concepts of the following microecnapsulated products: (viii) thermochromic materials, which utilized temperature changes for color development and fading, and microencapsulated photochromic dyes – the results being thermochromic sports and leisure garments, and photochromic curtains, sportswear and shirts; (ix) blowing agents and expandable microcapsules for leather substitutes and textile water proofing; (x) components in textile filters, odor absorbers and decontaminants.

After 1990, the inventions were further extended and upgraded to: (xi) prolonged release bioactive medical and cosmetic textiles with microencapsulated bioactive/healing components; (xii) antimicrobial, disinfectant and deodorant textiles; (xiii) repellent and insecticidal textiles, (xiv) functional textiles with heat storing and releasing properties, based on microencapsulated PCMs, applied in sportswear and special technical apparel with active thermal control.

After the year 2000, new inventions appeared in almost all previously known application fields, particularly in the domains of microencapsulated thermochromic and photoschromic dyes for color changing fabrics and sensor fibers; new techniques and solutions in textile dyeing and printing, involving microcapsules; and microencapsulation of additives in sophisticated compositions of textile detergents and softeners.

Since 2010 a new generation of microcapsule-based inventions have been emerging, applying microencapsulated components to achieve (xv) self-cleaning and/or self-healing properties of high-tech smart textiles.

Acknowledgments

The research on microencapsulation was financially co-supported by: the Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of Ljubljana; the Slovenian Research Agency (projects L2-5571, L1-6230 and L4-1562); and by the ERO, Chemical, Graphic and Paper Manufacturers, d.d. Celje, Slovenia. Samples of textiles with microcapsules for SEM imaging were kindly provided by Boštjan Šumiga, Ph.D., and Mr. Emil Knez from the AERO company.

This article is also available in: Giamberini (et al.), Microencapsulation. De Gruyter (2015), isbn 978-3-11-033187.

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Published Online: 2016-1-30

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