Abstract
Persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic (PBT) chemicals are a class of chemicals that resist degradation and persist in the environment for extensive periods. As a result of their persistence, when these chemicals are consumed, they bioaccumulate in the fat tissues, bones, and brain of organisms. Lead (Pb) is a PBT metal with the ability to bind irreversibly to neurons and to mimic natural minerals like calcium and zinc. The aim of this review is to examine the unique properties of a PBT, like Pb, as well as the analytic methods of detecting and characterizing PBTs. This review offers sections that explore Pb’s persistence in the environment, bioaccumulation in fish and birds, and toxic characteristics in the human body. It further examines how Pb’s effects on transcription factors could explain the observed Pb lines in Pb-poisoned individuals. This review also evaluates the relationship between the properties of persistence and bioaccumulation as a means to determine whether or not they are interconnected, interdependent, or independent of one another.
References
1. US Environmental Protection Agency. Persistent, bioaccumulative, toxic (PBT) chemicals; lowering of reporting threshold for certain PBT chemicals; addition of certain PBT chemicals; community right-to-know toxic chemical reporting. Washington, DC: US EPA, 1999. Available at: http://www.epa.gov/fedrgstr/EPA-WASTE/1999/October/Day-29/f28169.htm. Accessed on 26 October 2012.Search in Google Scholar
2. US Environmental Protection Agency. Air quality criteria for lead. Final report. Washington, DC: US EPA, 2006. Available at: http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=158823#Download. Accessed on 26 October 2012.Search in Google Scholar
3. US Environmental Protection Agency. Chemical safety and pollution prevention. Lead. Washington, DC: US EPA, 2012. Available at: http://yosemite.epa.gov/ochp/ochpweb.nsf/content/ACEreport3_19final.htm/$File/ACEreport2_21final.pdf. Accessed on 26 October 2012.Search in Google Scholar
4. Mekenyan OG, Dimitrov SD, Pavlov TS, Veith GD. POPs: a QSAR system for developing categories for persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic chemicals and their metabolites. SAR QSAR Environ Res 2005;16:103–33.10.1080/10629360412331319907Search in Google Scholar PubMed
5. Lipnick RL, Muir DC. History of persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic chemicals. In: Persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic chemicals. Volume I: fate and exposure. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 2000;772:1–12.Search in Google Scholar
6. Jansson B, Lipnick RL, Mackay D, Petreas M. Identification of persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic substances. In: Persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic chemicals. Volume II. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 2000;773:1–12.Search in Google Scholar
7. Mulroy PT, Ou LT. Degradation of tetraethyl lead during the degradation of leaded gasoline hydrocarbons in soil. Environ Toxicol Chem 1998;17:777–82.10.1002/etc.5620170502Search in Google Scholar
8. Vallero DA. Fundamentals of air pollution. Burlington, MA: Academic Press, US Environmental Protection Agency/Elsevier, 2008.10.1016/B978-012373615-4/50024-8Search in Google Scholar
9. US Environmental Protection Agency. OECD test no. 305: bioaccumulation in fish: aqueous and dietary exposure. Washington, DC: US EPA, 2008. Available at: http://www.epa.gov/scipoly/sap/meetings/2008/october/305_bioconcentration_flowthrough_fish_test.pdf.Search in Google Scholar
10. Schlechtriem C, Bruckert H, Jurling H, Goeritz I, Kosfeld V, et al. The freshwater amphiphod Hyalella azteca as alternative test organism for bioaccumulation studies. Schmallenberg, Germany: Fraunhofer IME, 2013. Available at: http://www.ime.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ime/de/documents/Publikationen/Schlechtriem_SETAC%20Europe%202013.pdf. Accessed on 27 July 2013.Search in Google Scholar
11. Vinodhini R, Narayanan M. Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in organs of fresh water fish Cyprinus carpio (common carp). Zoology 2008;5:179–82.Search in Google Scholar
12. Nyman G. Sublethal effects of lead (Pb) on size selective predation by fish application on the ecosystem level. Verh Int Verein Limnol 1981;21:1126–30.10.1080/03680770.1980.11897146Search in Google Scholar
13. Weber DN, Spieler RE. Behavioral mechanisms of metal toxicity in fishes. In: Malins DC, Ostrander GK, editors. Aquatic toxicology: molecular, biochemical, and cellular perspectives. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers, 1994:425–67.Search in Google Scholar
14. Beyer WN, Spann JW, Sileo L, Franson JC. Lead poisoning in six captive avian species. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 1988;17:121–30.10.1007/BF01055162Search in Google Scholar PubMed
15. Petition. Available at: http://www.epa.gov/oppt/chemtest/pubs/Petition%20Attachment.pdf. Accessed on 27 July 2013.Search in Google Scholar
16. Wobester G. Diseases of wild waterfowl. New York: Plenum Press, 1981.10.1007/978-1-4899-5336-0Search in Google Scholar
17. Lanphear BP, Dietrich K, Auinger P, Cox C. Cognitive deficits associated with blood lead concentrations <10 μg/dL in US children and adolescents. Public Health Rep 2000;115:521–9.10.1093/phr/115.6.521Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
18. Lanphear BP, Hornung R, Khoury J, Yolton K, Baghurst P, et al. Low-level environmental lead exposure and children’s intellectual function: an international pooled analysis. Environ Health Perspect 2005;113:894–9.10.1289/ehp.7688Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
19. Legget RW. An age specific kinetic model of lead metabolism in humans. Environ Health Perspect 1993;101:598–616.10.1289/ehp.93101598Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
20. Rothenberg SJ, Khan F, Manalo M, Jiang J, Cuellar R, et al. Maternal bone lead contribution to blood lead during and after pregnancy. Environ Res A 2000;82:81–90.10.1006/enrs.1999.4007Search in Google Scholar PubMed
21. Sanders T, Liu Y, Buchner V, Tchounwou PB. Neurotoxic effects and biomarkers of lead exposure: a review. Rev Environ Health 2009;24:15–45.10.1515/REVEH.2009.24.1.15Search in Google Scholar
22. Goering PL, Fowler BA. Metal constitution of metallothionein influences inhibition of δ-aminolaevulinic acid dehydratase (porphobilinogen synthase) by lead. Biochem J 1987;245: 339–45.10.1042/bj2450339Search in Google Scholar
23. Surkan PJ, Zhang A, Trachtenberg F, Daniel DB, McKinlay S, et al. Neuropsychological function in children with blood lead levels <10 mg/dL. Neurotoxicology 2007;28:1170–7.10.1016/j.neuro.2007.07.007Search in Google Scholar
24. Busselberg D, Schirmacher K, Domann R, Wiemann M. Lead interferes with calcium entry through membrane pores. Fresenius J Anal Chem 1998;361:372–6.10.1007/s002160050908Search in Google Scholar
25. Brubaker CJ, Schmithorst VJ, Haynes EN, Dietrich KN, Egelhoff KC, et al. Altered myelination and axonal integrity in adults with childhood lead exposure: a diffusion tensor imaging study. Neurotoxicology 2009;30:867–75.10.1016/j.neuro.2009.07.007Search in Google Scholar
26. Puzas JE, Cory-Slecta DA, Rosier R, O’Keefe R, Crushing J, et al. Chronic lead intoxication may contribute to osteoporosis. Toxicologist 1999;48:328.Search in Google Scholar
27. Campbell JR, Rosier RN, Novotny L, Puzas JE. The association between environmental lead exposure and bone density in children. Environ Health Perspect 2004;112:1200–3.10.1289/ehp.6555Search in Google Scholar
28. Zuscik MJ, Ma L, O’Keefe RJ. Lead induces chondrogenesis and alters transforming growth factor-beta and bone morphogenetic protein signaling in mesenchymal cell populations. Environ Health Perspect 2007;115:1276–82.10.1289/ehp.10028Search in Google Scholar
29. Shaulian E, Karin M. AP-1 in cell proliferation and survival. Oncogene 1997;20:2390–400.10.1038/sj.onc.1204383Search in Google Scholar
30. Takayanagi H, Kim S, Koga T, Nishina H, Isshiki M, et al. Induction and activation of the transcription factor NFATc1 (NFAT2) integrate RANKL signaling in terminal differentiation of osteoclasts. Dev Cell 2002;3:889–901.10.1016/S1534-5807(02)00369-6Search in Google Scholar
31. Crabtree GR, Olson EN. NFAT Signaling: choreographing the social lives of cells. Cell 2002;109:S67–79.10.1016/S0092-8674(02)00699-2Search in Google Scholar
32. Hogan PG, Chen L, Nardone J, Rao A. Transcription regulation by calcium, calcineurin, and NFAT. Genes Dev 2003;17:2205–32.10.1101/gad.1102703Search in Google Scholar PubMed
33. Lilienbaum A, Isreal A. From calcium to NFkB signaling pathways in neurons. Mol Cell Biol 2003;2680–98.10.1128/MCB.23.8.2680-2698.2003Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
34. Novack DV. Role of NFkB in skeleton. Cell Res 2011;21:169–82.10.1038/cr.2010.159Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
35. Caron MJ, Emans PJ, Surtel DM, Cremers A, Voncken JW, et al. Activation of NF-κB/p65 facilitates early chondrogenic differentiation during endochondral ossification. PLoS One 2012;7: e33467.10.1371/journal.pone.0033467Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
36. Macian F, Lopez-Rodriguez C, Rao A. Partners in transcription: NFAT and AP-1. Oncogene 2001;20:2476–89.10.1038/sj.onc.1204386Search in Google Scholar PubMed
37. Campbell JR, Auinger P. The association between blood lead levels and osteoporosis among adults – results from the third national health and nutrition examination survey (NHANES III). Environ Health Perspect 2007;115:1018–22.10.1289/ehp.9716Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
©2013 by Walter de Gruyter Berlin Boston