Abstract

Adopting a comparative approach, the article discusses patterns of inclusion and exclusion such as property, nation and religion from a historical viewpoint. According to Luhmann the concept of inclusion and exclusion is about taking into account persons in social systems; according to Foucault it is related to deviance and abnormality. The transition from stratified to functionally differentiated societies is analysed, emphasising the transformation of ›Inklusionsindividualität‹ to ›Exklusionsindwidualität‹. Property and nation are both treated as transient semantics: for a short time after its emergence, private property guarantees inclusion and brings about new forms of identity and exclusion. Without the nation state the autonomy of subsystems would not be tolerable. The idea of a nation temporarily compensates for exclusion rates resulting from this new form of differentiation. While religion grants access to anyone and everyone even in stratified societies, thus anticipating the new pattern of inclusion, it also turns into a reservoir for unplanned, non-functionary exclusion in modern society.